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Staff member

Pau Gorostiza Langa

Group Leader / ICREA Research Professor
+34 934 020 208
pgorostizaibecbarcelona.eu
CV Summary
Pau Gorostiza graduated in physics at the University of Barcelona (UB), where he obtained his PhD (European Doctorate) in the field of semiconductor electrochemistry. He worked at the UB microscopy facility in AFM and STM of biological samples, and in nanotechnology for materials science. He visited the CNRS - Université Pierre et Marie Curie (France), and the University of California at Berkeley (USA). He is currently ICREA Research Professor at the Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia, where he develops photoswitchable ligands of neuronal proteins and studies charge transport in redox proteins and photosynthetic complexes using EC-STM/AFM. He obtained a Human Frontier Science Program (HFSP) Career Development Award, two European Research Council (ERC) grants, and coordinates a European Innovation Council (EIC) Pathfinder Open grant, among other public and private funding grants. He published more than 140 articles (7100 citations, h-index 46) and holds 9 patents (5 licensed). He has supervised 14 postdoctoral fellows and 15 PhDs (6 more ongoing).

Keywords:

electrochemistry, scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy, redox proteins, electrophysiology, neurobiology, neuroscience, photoswitch, photopharmacology, optopharmacology, optogenetics, biophysics, bioengineering, phototherapy, two photon, three photon, upconversion

Staff member publications

Camerin, Luisa, Maleeva, Galyna, Gomila, Alexandre M J, Suarez-Pereira, Irene, Matera, Carlo, Prischich, Davia, Opar, Ekin, Riefolo, Fabio, Berrocoso, Esther, Gorostiza, Pau, (2024). Photoswitchable Carbamazepine Analogs for Non-Invasive Neuroinhibition In Vivo Angewandte Chemie (International Ed. Print) 63, e202403636

A problem of systemic pharmacotherapy is off-target activity, which causes adverse effects. Outstanding examples include neuroinhibitory medications like antiseizure drugs, which are used against epilepsy and neuropathic pain but cause systemic side effects. There is a need of drugs that inhibit nerve signals locally and on-demand without affecting other regions of the body. Photopharmacology aims to address this problem with light-activated drugs and localized illumination in the target organ. Here, we have developed photoswitchable derivatives of the widely prescribed antiseizure drug carbamazepine. For that purpose, we expanded our method of ortho azologization of tricyclic drugs to meta/para and to N-bridged diazocine. Our results validate the concept of ortho cryptoazologs (uniquely exemplified by Carbazopine-1) and bring to light Carbadiazocine (8), which can be photoswitched between 400-590 nm light (using violet LEDs and halogen lamps) and shows good drug-likeness and predicted safety. Both compounds display photoswitchable activity in vitro and in translucent zebrafish larvae. Carbadiazocine (8) also offers in vivo analgesic efficacy (mechanical and thermal stimuli) in a rat model of neuropathic pain and a simple and compelling treatment demonstration with non-invasive illumination.

JTD Keywords: Antiepileptic drugs, Anxiet, Azobenzene, Diazocine, Epileps, Ion channels, Neuromodulation, Optical control, Pain, Photopharmacology, Rat, Receptors, Release, Spatiotemporal control, Tricyclic drugs, Zebrafish


Lopez-Ortiz, Manuel, Bolzonello, Luca, Bruschi, Matteo, Fresch, Elisa, Collini, Elisabetta, Hu, Chen, Croce, Roberta, van Hulst, Niek F, Gorostiza, Pau, (2024). Photoelectrochemical Two-Dimensional Electronic Spectroscopy (PEC2DES) of Photosystem I: Charge Separation Dynamics Hidden in a Multichromophoric Landscape Acs Applied Materials & Interfaces 16, 43451-43461

Prischich, Davia, Sortino, Rosalba, Gomila-Juaneda, Alexandre, Matera, Carlo, Guardiola, Salvador, Nepomuceno, Diane, Varese, Monica, Bonaventure, Pascal, de Lecea, Luis, Giralt, Ernest, Gorostiza, Pau, (2024). In vivo photocontrol of orexin receptors with a nanomolar light-regulated analogue of orexin-B Cellular And Molecular Life Sciences 81, 288

Gorostiza, Pau

JTD


Sortino, Rosalba, Cunquero, Marina, Castro-Olvera, Gustavo, Gelabert, Ricard, Moreno, Miquel, Riefolo, Fabio, Matera, Carlo, Fernandez-Castillo, Noelia, Agnetta, Luca, Decker, Michael, Lluch, Jose M, Hernando, Jordi, Loza-Alvarez, Pablo, Gorostiza, Pau, (2023). Three-Photon Infrared Stimulation of Endogenous Neuroreceptors in Vivo Angewandte Chemie (International Ed. Print) 62, e202311181

To interrogate neural circuits and crack their codes, in vivo brain activity imaging must be combined with spatiotemporally precise stimulation in three dimensions using genetic or pharmacological specificity. This challenge requires deep penetration and focusing as provided by infrared light and multiphoton excitation, and has promoted two-photon photopharmacology and optogenetics. However, three-photon brain stimulation in vivo remains to be demonstrated. We report the regulation of neuronal activity in zebrafish larvae by three-photon excitation of a photoswitchable muscarinic agonist at 50 pM, a billion-fold lower concentration than used for uncaging, and with mid-infrared light of 1560 nm, the longest reported photoswitch wavelength. Robust, physiologically relevant photoresponses allow modulating brain activity in wild-type animals with spatiotemporal and pharmacological precision. Computational calculations predict that azobenzene-based ligands have high three-photon absorption cross-section and can be used directly with pulsed infrared light. The expansion of three-photon pharmacology will deeply impact basic neurobiology and neuromodulation phototherapies.© 2023 Wiley-VCH GmbH.

JTD Keywords: absorption, azobenzene photoswitches, deep, glutamate-receptor, intravital microscopy, multiphoton excitation, muscarinic neuromodulation, photopharmacology, two-photon lithography and polymerization, 2-photon excitation, Animals, Azobenzene, Infrared rays, Ligands, Multiphoton excitation, Muscarinic neuromodulation, Photons, Photopharmacology, Photopharmacology, azobenzene, muscarinic neuromodulation, multiphoton excitation, two-photon lithography and polymerization, Two-photon lithography and polymerization, Zebrafish


Prischich, D, Camarero, N, del Dedo, JE, Cambra-Pellejà, M, Prat, J, Nevola, L, Martín-Quirós, A, Rebollo, E, Pastor, L, Giralt, E, Geli, MI, Gorostiza, P, (2023). Light-dependent inhibition of clathrin-mediated endocytosis in yeast unveils conserved functions of the AP2 complex Iscience 26, 107899

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) is an essential cellular process, conserved among eukaryotes. Yeast constitutes a powerful genetic model to dissect the complex endocytic machinery, yet there is a lack of specific pharmacological agents to interfere with CME in these organisms. TL2 is a light-regulated peptide inhibitor targeting the AP2-β-adaptin/β-arrestin interaction and that can photocontrol CME with high spatiotemporal precision in mammalian cells. Here, we study endocytic protein dynamics by live-cell imaging of the fluorescently tagged coat-associated protein Sla1-GFP, demonstrating that TL2 retains its inhibitory activity in S. cerevisiae spheroplasts. This is despite the β-adaptin/β-arrestin interaction not being conserved in yeast. Our data indicate that the AP2 α-adaptin is the functional target of activated TL2. We identified as interacting partners for the α-appendage, the Eps15 and epsin homologues Ede1 and Ent1. This demonstrates that endocytic cargo loading and sensing can be executed by conserved molecular interfaces, regardless of the proteins involved.© 2023 The Author(s).

JTD Keywords: adapters, alpha-appendage, azobenzene, cross-linker, mechanism, peptides, proteins, receptor, trafficking, Actin polymerization, Biochemistry, Biological sciences, Cell biology, Molecular biology, Natural sciences


López-Ortiz, M, Zamora, RA, Giannotti, MI, Gorostiza, P, (2023). The Protein Matrix of Plastocyanin Supports Long-Distance Charge Transport with Photosystem I and the Copper Ion Regulates Its Spatial Span and Conductance Acs Nano 17, 20334-20344

Charge exchange is the fundamental process that sustains cellular respiration and photosynthesis by shuttling electrons in a cascade of electron transfer (ET) steps between redox cofactors. While intraprotein charge exchange is well characterized in protein complexes bearing multiple redox sites, interprotein processes are less understood due to the lack of suitable experimental approaches and the dynamic nature of the interactions. Proteins constrained between electrodes are known to support electron transport (ETp) through the protein matrix even without redox cofactors, as the charges housed by the redox sites in ET are furnished by the electrodes. However, it is unknown whether protein ETp mechanisms apply to the interprotein medium present under physiological conditions. We study interprotein charge exchange between plant photosystem I (PSI) and its soluble redox partner plastocyanin (Pc) and address the role of the Pc copper center. Using electrochemical scanning tunneling spectroscopy (ECSTS) current-distance and blinking measurements, we quantify the spatial span of charge exchange between individual Pc/PSI pairs and ETp through transient Pc/PSI complexes. Pc devoid of the redox center (Pcapo) can exchange charge with PSI at longer distances than with the copper ion (Pcholo). Conductance bursts associated with Pcapo/PSI complex formation are higher than in Pcholo/PSI. Thus, copper ions are not required for long-distance Pc/PSI ETp but regulate its spatial span and conductance. Our results suggest that the redox center that carries the charge in Pc is not necessary to exchange it in interprotein ET through the aqueous solution and question the canonical view of tight complex binding between redox protein partners.

JTD Keywords: azurin, binding, blinking, crystal-structure, cupredoxin, current distance spectroscopy, electrochemical tunneling microscopy, proteinconductance, reduction, single metalloprotein, single molecule measurements, site, spectroscopy, Blinking, Cupredoxin, Current distance spectroscopy, Electrochemical tunneling microscopy, Interprotein electron transfer, Protein conductance, Single molecule measurements, State electron-transport


Blasi, D, Gonzalez-Pato, N, Rodriguez, XR, Diez-Zabala, I, Srinivasan, SY, Camarero, N, Esquivias, O, Roldán, M, Guasch, J, Laromaine, A, Gorostiza, P, Veciana, J, Ratera, I, (2023). Ratiometric Nanothermometer Based on a Radical Excimer for In Vivo Sensing Small 19, 2207806

Ratiometric fluorescent nanothermometers with near-infrared emission play an important role in in vivo sensing since they can be used as intracellular thermal sensing probes with high spatial resolution and high sensitivity, to investigate cellular functions of interest in diagnosis and therapy, where current approaches are not effective. Herein, the temperature-dependent fluorescence of organic nanoparticles is designed, synthesized, and studied based on the dual emission, generated by monomer and excimer species, of the tris(2,4,6-trichlorophenyl)methyl radical (TTM) doping organic nanoparticles (TTMd-ONPs), made of optically neutral tris(2,4,6-trichlorophenyl)methane (TTM-αH), acting as a matrix. The excimer emission intensity of TTMd-ONPs decreases with increasing temperatures whereas the monomer emission is almost independent and can be used as an internal reference. TTMd-ONPs show a great temperature sensitivity (3.4% K-1 at 328 K) and a wide temperature response at ambient conditions with excellent reversibility and high colloidal stability. In addition, TTMd-ONPs are not cytotoxic and their ratiometric outputs are unaffected by changes in the environment. Individual TTMd-ONPs are able to sense temperature changes at the nano-microscale. In vivo thermometry experiments in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) worms show that TTMd-ONPs can locally monitor internal body temperature changes with spatio-temporal resolution and high sensitivity, offering multiple applications in the biological nanothermometry field.© 2023 The Authors. Small published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.

JTD Keywords: dual emission, elegans, excimer emission, fluorescence, in vivo sensing, luminescence, nanoparticles, organic radical nanoparticles, ratiometric nanothermometers, sensors, thermometry, trityl radicals, Caenorhabditis elegans, Excimer emission, In vivo sensing, Intracellular ph, Luminescence, Organic radical nanoparticles, Ratiometric nanothermometers, Trityl radicals


Lagunas, A, Belloir, C, Briand, L, Gorostiza, P, Samitier, J, (2022). Determination of the nanoscale electrical properties of olfactory receptor hOR1A1 and their dependence on ligand binding: Towards the development of capacitance-operated odorant biosensors Biosensors & Bioelectronics 218, 114755

The transduction of odorant binding into cellular signaling by olfactory receptors (ORs) is not understood and knowing its mechanism would enable developing new pharmacology and biohybrid electronic detectors of volatile organic compounds bearing high sensitivity and selectivity. The electrical characterization of ORs in bulk experiments is subject to microscopic models and assumptions. We have directly determined the nanoscale electrical properties of ORs immobilized in a fixed orientation, and their change upon odorant binding, using electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy (EC-STM) in near-physiological conditions. Recordings of current versus time, distance, and electrochemical potential allows determining the OR impedance parameters and their dependence with odorant binding. Our results allow validating OR structural-electrostatic models and their functional activation processes, and anticipating a novel macroscopic biosensor based on ORs.Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

JTD Keywords: electrochemical scanning tunneling, electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy (ec-stm), microscopy (ec-stm), neurons, odorant binding, olfactory receptors (ors), open-circuit voltage(voc), Olfactory receptors (ors), Open-circuit voltage (v(oc)), Transport


Gomila, AMJ, Pérez-Mejías, G, Nin-Hill, A, Guerra-Castellano, A, Casas-Ferrer, L, Ortiz-Tescari, S, Díaz-Quintana, A, Samitier, J, Rovira, C, De la Rosa, MA, Díaz-Moreno, I, Gorostiza, P, Giannotti, MI, Lagunas, A, (2022). Phosphorylation disrupts long-distance electron transport in cytochrome c Nature Communications 13, 7100

It has been recently shown that electron transfer between mitochondrial cytochrome c and the cytochrome c1 subunit of the cytochrome bc1 can proceed at long-distance through the aqueous solution. Cytochrome c is thought to adjust its activity by changing the affinity for its partners via Tyr48 phosphorylation, but it is unknown how it impacts the nanoscopic environment, interaction forces, and long-range electron transfer. Here, we constrain the orientation and separation between cytochrome c1 and cytochrome c or the phosphomimetic Y48pCMF cytochrome c, and deploy an array of single-molecule, bulk, and computational methods to investigate the molecular mechanism of electron transfer regulation by cytochrome c phosphorylation. We demonstrate that phosphorylation impairs long-range electron transfer, shortens the long-distance charge conduit between the partners, strengthens their interaction, and departs it from equilibrium. These results unveil a nanoscopic view of the interaction between redox protein partners in electron transport chains and its mechanisms of regulation.© 2022. The Author(s).

JTD Keywords: apoptosis, binding, cardiolipin, complex, dynamics, force, respiration, structural basis, tyrosine phosphorylation, Histone chaperone activity


Zamora, RA, López-Ortiz, M, Sales-Mateo, M, Hu, C, Croce, R, Maniyara, RA, Pruneri, V, Giannotti, MI, Gorostiza, P, (2022). Light- and Redox-Dependent Force Spectroscopy Reveals that the Interaction between Plastocyanin and Plant Photosystem I Is Favored when One Partner Is Ready for Electron Transfer Acs Nano 16, 15155-15164

Photosynthesis is a fundamental process that converts photons into chemical energy, driven by large protein complexes at the thylakoid membranes of plants, cyanobacteria, and algae. In plants, water-soluble plastocyanin (Pc) is responsible for shuttling electrons between cytochrome b6f complex and the photosystem I (PSI) complex in the photosynthetic electron transport chain (PETC). For an efficient turnover, a transient complex must form between PSI and Pc in the PETC, which implies a balance between specificity and binding strength. Here, we studied the binding frequency and the unbinding force between suitably oriented plant PSI and Pc under redox control using single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS). The binding frequency (observation of binding-unbinding events) between PSI and Pc depends on their respective redox states. The interaction between PSI and Pc is independent of the redox state of PSI when Pc is reduced, and it is disfavored in the dark (reduced P700) when Pc is oxidized. The frequency of interaction between PSI and Pc is higher when at least one of the partners is in a redox state ready for electron transfer (ET), and the post-ET situation (PSIRed-PcOx) leads to lower binding. In addition, we show that the binding of ET-ready PcRed to PSI can be regulated externally by Mg2+ ions in solution.

JTD Keywords: architecture, binding-site, complexes, ferredoxin, force spectroscopy, induced structural-changes, interprotein electron transfer, light-dependent interaction, mg2+ concentration, photosystem i, plastocyanin, probe, recognition, reduction, Force spectroscopy, Interprotein electron transfer, Light-dependent interaction, Photosynthetic reaction-center, Photosystem i, Plastocyanin, Single molecule measurements


Matera, C, Calvé, P, Casadó-Anguera, V, Sortino, R, Gomila, AMJ, Moreno, E, Gener, T, Delgado-Sallent, C, Nebot, P, Costazza, D, Conde-Berriozabal, S, Masana, M, Hernando, J, Casadó, V, Puig, MV, Gorostiza, P, (2022). Reversible Photocontrol of Dopaminergic Transmission in Wild-Type Animals International Journal Of Molecular Sciences 23, 10114

Understanding the dopaminergic system is a priority in neurobiology and neuropharmacology. Dopamine receptors are involved in the modulation of fundamental physiological functions, and dysregulation of dopaminergic transmission is associated with major neurological disorders. However, the available tools to dissect the endogenous dopaminergic circuits have limited specificity, reversibility, resolution, or require genetic manipulation. Here, we introduce azodopa, a novel photoswitchable ligand that enables reversible spatiotemporal control of dopaminergic transmission. We demonstrate that azodopa activates D1-like receptors in vitro in a light-dependent manner. Moreover, it enables reversibly photocontrolling zebrafish motility on a timescale of seconds and allows separating the retinal component of dopaminergic neurotransmission. Azodopa increases the overall neural activity in the cortex of anesthetized mice and displays illumination-dependent activity in individual cells. Azodopa is the first photoswitchable dopamine agonist with demonstrated efficacy in wild-type animals and opens the way to remotely controlling dopaminergic neurotransmission for fundamental and therapeutic purposes.

JTD Keywords: azobenzene, behavior, brainwave, d-1, dopamine, gpcr, in vivo electrophysiology, inhibitors, optogenetics, optopharmacology, photochromism, photopharmacology, photoswitch, stimulation, zebrafish, Animals, Animals, wild, Azobenzene, Behavior, Brainwave, Dopamine, Gpcr, In vivo electrophysiology, Ligands, Mice, Optogenetics, Optopharmacology, Photochromism, Photopharmacology, Photoswitch, Receptors, Synaptic transmission, Zebrafish


Castagna, R, Maleeva, G, Pirovano, D, Matera, C, Gorostiza, P, (2022). Donor-Acceptor Stenhouse Adduct Displaying Reversible Photoswitching in Water and Neuronal Activity Journal Of The American Chemical Society 144, 15595-15602

The interest in the photochromism and functional applications of donor-acceptor Stenhouse adducts (DASAs) soared in recent years owing to their outstanding advantages and flexible design. However, their low solubility and irreversible conversion in aqueous solutions hampered exploring DASAs for biology and medicine. It is notably unknown whether the barbiturate electron acceptor group retains the pharmacological activity of drugs such as phenobarbital, which targets γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-type A receptors (GABAARs) in the brain. Here, we have developed the model compound DASA-barbital based on a scaffold of red-switching second-generation DASAs, and we demonstrate that it is active in GABAARs and alters the neuronal firing rate in a physiological medium at neutral pH. DASA-barbital can also be reversibly photoswitched in acidic aqueous solutions using cyclodextrin, an approved ingredient of drug formulations. These findings clarify the path toward the biological applications of DASAs and to exploit the versatility displayed in polymers and materials science.

JTD Keywords: behavior, receptor, visible-light, wavelength, Optical control


Garrido-Charles, A, Huet, A, Matera, C, Thirumalai, A, Hernando, J, Llebaria, A, Moser, T, Gorostiza, P, (2022). Fast Photoswitchable Molecular Prosthetics Control Neuronal Activity in the Cochlea Journal Of The American Chemical Society 144, 9229-9239

Artificial control of neuronal activity enables the study of neural circuits and restoration of neural functions. Direct, rapid, and sustained photocontrol of intact neurons could overcome the limitations of established electrical stimulation such as poor selectivity. We have developed fast photoswitchable ligands of glutamate receptors (GluRs) to enable neuronal control in the auditory system. The new photoswitchable ligands induced photocurrents in untransfected neurons upon covalently tethering to endogenous GluRs and activating them reversibly with visible light pulses of a few milliseconds. As a proof of concept of these molecular prostheses, we applied them to the ultrafast synapses of auditory neurons of the cochlea that encode sound and provide auditory input to the brain. This drug-based method afforded the optical stimulation of auditory neurons of adult gerbils at hundreds of hertz without genetic manipulation that would be required for their optogenetic control. This indicates that the new photoswitchable ligands are also applicable to the spatiotemporal control of fast spiking interneurons in the brain.

JTD Keywords: Acid, Azobenzene, Glutamate-receptor, Ion channels, Mechanisms, Nerve, Optical switches, Release, Stimulation


López-Ortiz, M, Zamora, RA, Giannotti, MI, Hu, C, Croce, R, Gorostiza, P, (2022). Distance and Potential Dependence of Charge Transport Through the Reaction Center of Individual Photosynthetic Complexes Small 18, 2104366

Charge separation and transport through the reaction center of photosystem I (PSI) is an essential part of the photosynthetic electron transport chain. A strategy is developed to immobilize and orient PSI complexes on gold electrodes allowing to probe the complex's electron acceptor side, the chlorophyll special pair P700. Electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy (ECSTM) imaging and current-distance spectroscopy of single protein complex shows lateral size in agreement with its known dimensions, and a PSI apparent height that depends on the probe potential revealing a gating effect in protein conductance. In current-distance spectroscopy, it is observed that the distance-decay constant of the current between PSI and the ECSTM probe depends on the sample and probe electrode potentials. The longest charge exchange distance (lowest distance-decay constant ?) is observed at sample potential 0 mV/SSC (SSC: reference electrode silver/silver chloride) and probe potential 400 mV/SSC. These potentials correspond to hole injection into an electronic state that is available in the absence of illumination. It is proposed that a pair of tryptophan residues located at the interface between P700 and the solution and known to support the hydrophobic recognition of the PSI redox partner plastocyanin, may have an additional role as hole exchange mediator in charge transport through PSI.© 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH.

JTD Keywords: azurin, current distance decay spectroscopy, cytochrome c(6), electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy (ecstm), electrochemistry, photosystem i, photosystem-i, plastocyanin, protein electron transfer, recognition, single metalloprotein, single molecules, structural basis, tunneling spectroscopy, 'current, Amino acids, Charge transfer, Chlorine compounds, Current distance decay spectroscopy, Decay spectroscopies, Distance decay, Electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy, Electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy (ecstm), Electrodes, Electron transfer, Electron transport properties, Gold compounds, Photosystem i, Photosystems, Protein electron transfer, Protein electron-transfer, Proteins, Scanning tunneling microscopy, Silver halides, Single molecule, Single molecules


Barbero-Castillo, A, Riefolo, F, Matera, C, Caldas-Martínez, S, Mateos-Aparicio, P, Weinert, JF, Garrido-Charles, A, Claro, E, Sanchez-Vives, MV, Gorostiza, P, (2021). Control of Brain State Transitions with a Photoswitchable Muscarinic Agonist Advanced Science 8, 2005027

The ability to control neural activity is essential for research not only in basic neuroscience, as spatiotemporal control of activity is a fundamental experimental tool, but also in clinical neurology for therapeutic brain interventions. Transcranial-magnetic, ultrasound, and alternating/direct current (AC/DC) stimulation are some available means of spatiotemporal controlled neuromodulation. There is also light-mediated control, such as optogenetics, which has revolutionized neuroscience research, yet its clinical translation is hampered by the need for gene manipulation. As a drug-based light-mediated control, the effect of a photoswitchable muscarinic agonist (Phthalimide-Azo-Iper (PAI)) on a brain network is evaluated in this study. First, the conditions to manipulate M2 muscarinic receptors with light in the experimental setup are determined. Next, physiological synchronous emergent cortical activity consisting of slow oscillations-as in slow wave sleep-is transformed into a higher frequency pattern in the cerebral cortex, both in vitro and in vivo, as a consequence of PAI activation with light. These results open the way to study cholinergic neuromodulation and to control spatiotemporal patterns of activity in different brain states, their transitions, and their links to cognition and behavior. The approach can be applied to different organisms and does not require genetic manipulation, which would make it translational to humans.

JTD Keywords: brain states, light-mediated control, muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, neuromodulation, Activation, Alternating/direct currents, Basal forebrain, Brain, Brain states, Clinical research, Clinical translation, Controlled drug delivery, Cortex, Forebrain cholinergic system, Genetic manipulations, Higher frequencies, Hz oscillation, Light‐, Light-mediated control, Mediated control, Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, Muscarinic agonists, Muscarinic receptor, Neurology, Neuromodulation, Neurons, Noradrenergic modulation, Parvalbumin-positive interneurons, Photopharmacology, Receptor-binding, Slow, Spatiotemporal control, Spatiotemporal patterns


Riefolo, F, Sortino, R, Matera, C, Claro, E, Preda, B, Vitiello, S, Traserra, S, Jimenez, M, Gorostiza, P, (2021). Rational Design of Photochromic Analogues of Tricyclic Drugs Journal Of Medicinal Chemistry 64, 9259-9270

Tricyclic chemical structures are the core of many important drugs targeting all neurotransmitter pathways. These medicines enable effective therapies to treat from peptic ulcer disease to psychiatric disorders. However, when administered systemically, they cause serious adverse effects that limit their use. To obtain localized and on-demand pharmacological action using light, we have designed photoisomerizable ligands based on azobenzene that mimic the tricyclic chemical structure and display reversibly controlled activity. Pseudo-analogues of the tricyclic antagonist pirenzepine demonstrate that this is an effective strategy in muscarinic acetylcholine receptors, showing stronger inhibition upon illumination both in vitro and in cardiac atria ex vivo. Despite the applied chemical modifications to make pirenzepine derivatives sensitive to light stimuli, the most potent candidate of the set, cryptozepine-2, maintained a moderate but promising M-1 vs M-2 subtype selectivity. These photoswitchable crypto-azologs of tricyclic drugs might open a general way to spatiotemporally target their therapeutic action while reducing their systemic toxicity and adverse effects.

JTD Keywords: Binding, Dose-response relationship, drug, Drug design, Humans, M1, Molecular structure, Muscarinic antagonists, Pirenzepine, Rat-brain, Receptor, Receptors, muscarinic, Structure-activity relationship


López-Ortiz, M, Zamora, RA, Antinori, ME, Gorostiza, P, Remesh, V, van Hulst, NF, Hu, C, Croce, R, (2021). Fast Photo-Chrono-Amperometry of Photosynthetic Complexes for Biosensors and Electron Transport Studies Acs Sensors 6, 581-587

© 2021 American Chemical Society. Photosynthetic reactions in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria are driven by photosystem I and photosystem II complexes, which specifically reduce or oxidize partner redox biomolecules. Photosynthetic complexes can also bind synthetic organic molecules, which inhibit their photoactivity and can be used both to study the electron transport chain and as herbicides and algicides. Thus, their development, characterization, and sensing bears fundamental and applied interest. Substantial efforts have been devoted to developing photosensors based on photosystem II to detect compounds that bind to the plastoquinone sites of this complex. In comparison, photosystem I based sensors have received less attention and could be used to identify novel substances displaying phytotoxic effects, including those obtained from natural product extracts. We have developed a robust procedure to functionalize gold electrodes with photo- and redox-active photosystem I complexes based on transparent gold and a thiolate self-assembled monolayer, and we have obtained reproducible electrochemical photoresponses. Chronoamperometric recordings have allowed us to measure photocurrents in the presence of the viologen derivative paraquat at concentrations below 100 nM under lock-in operation and a sensor dynamic range spanning six orders of magnitude up to 100 mM. We have modeled their time course to identify the main electrochemical processes and limiting steps in the electron transport chain. Our results allow us to isolate the contributions from photosystem I and the redox mediator, and evaluate photocurrent features (spectral and power dependence, fast transient kinetics) that could be used as a sensing signal to detect other inhibitors and modulators of photosystem I activity.

JTD Keywords: biosensor, herbicide, kinetic model, paraquat, photo-chrono-amperometry, photosystem i, self-assembled monolayer, transparent gold microelectrode, Biosensor, Herbicide, Kinetic model, Paraquat, Photo-chrono-amperometry, Photosystem i, Self-assembled monolayer, Transparent gold microelectrode


Prischich, D, Gomila, AMJ, Milla-Navarro, S, Sanguesa, G, Diez-Alarcia, R, Preda, B, Matera, C, Batlle, M, Ramírez, L, Giralt, E, Hernando, J, Guasch, E, Meana, JJ, de la Villa, P, Gorostiza, P, (2021). Adrenergic Modulation With Photochromic Ligands Angewandte Chemie (International Ed. Print) 60, 3625-3631

© 2020 Wiley-VCH GmbH Adrenoceptors are ubiquitous and mediate important autonomic functions as well as modulating arousal, cognition, and pain on a central level. Understanding these physiological processes and their underlying neural circuits requires manipulating adrenergic neurotransmission with high spatio-temporal precision. Here we present a first generation of photochromic ligands (adrenoswitches) obtained via azologization of a class of cyclic amidines related to the known ligand clonidine. Their pharmacology, photochromism, bioavailability, and lack of toxicity allow for broad biological applications, as demonstrated by controlling locomotion in zebrafish and pupillary responses in mice.

JTD Keywords: adrenergic receptors, azo compounds, neurotransmitters, photochromism, Adrenergic agents, Adrenergic receptors, Animals, Azo compounds, Chromogenic compounds, Ligands, Mice, Mice, nude, Molecular structure, Neurotransmitters, Photochromism, Photopharmacology, Receptors, adrenergic, Zebrafish


Maleeva, G, Nin-Hill, A, Rustler, K, Petukhova, E, Ponomareva, D, Mukhametova, E, Gomila, AMJ, Wutz, D, Alfonso-Prieto, M, König, B, Gorostiza, P, Bregestovski, P, (2021). Subunit-specific photocontrol of glycine receptors by azobenzene-nitrazepam photoswitcher Eneuro 8, 0294-20.2020

© 2021 Maleeva et al. Photopharmacology is a unique approach that through a combination of photochemistry methods and advanced life science techniques allows the study and control of specific biological processes, ranging from intracellular pathways to brain circuits. Recently, a first photochromic channel blocker of anion-selective GABAA receptors, the azobenzene-nitrazepam-based photochromic compound (Azo-NZ1), has been described. In the present study, using patch-clamp technique in heterologous system and in mice brain slices, site-directed mutagenesis and molecular modeling we provide evidence of the interaction of Azo-NZ1 with glycine receptors (GlyRs) and determine the molecular basis of this interaction. Glycinergic synaptic neurotransmission determines an important inhibitory drive in the vertebrate nervous system and plays a crucial role in the control of neuronal circuits in the spinal cord and brain stem. GlyRs are involved in locomotion, pain sensation, breathing, and auditory function, as well as in the development of such disorders as hyperekplexia, epilepsy, and autism. Here, we demonstrate that Azo-NZ1 blocks in a UV-dependent manner the activity of a2 GlyRs (GlyR2), while being barely active on a1 GlyRs (GlyR1). The site of Azo-NZ1 action is in the chloride-selective pore of GlyR at the 2’ position of transmembrane helix 2 and amino acids forming this site determine the difference in Azo-NZ1 blocking activity between GlyR2 and GlyR1. This subunit-specific modulation is also shown on motoneurons of brainstem slices from neonatal mice that switch during development from expressing “fetal” GlyR2 to “adult” GlyR1 receptors.

JTD Keywords: brain slices, glycine receptors, hypoglossal motoneurons, molecular modelling, patch-clamp, photopharmacology, Brain slices, Glycine receptors, Hypoglossal motoneurons, Molecular modelling, Patch-clamp, Photopharmacology


Fuentes, E., Gerth, M., Berrocal, J. A., Matera, C., Gorostiza, P., Voets, I. K., Pujals, S., Albertazzi, L., (2020). An azobenzene-based single-component supramolecular polymer responsive to multiple stimuli in water Journal of the American Chemical Society 142, (22), 10069-10078

One of the most appealing features of supramolecular assemblies is their ability to respond to external stimuli due to their noncovalent nature. This provides the opportunity to gain control over their size, morphology, and chemical properties and is key toward some of their applications. However, the design of supramolecular systems able to respond to multiple stimuli in a controlled fashion is still challenging. Here we report the synthesis and characterization of a novel discotic molecule, which self-assembles in water into a single-component supramolecular polymer that responds to multiple independent stimuli. The building block of such an assembly is a C3-symmetric monomer, consisting of a benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamide core conjugated to a series of natural and non-natural functional amino acids. This design allows the use of rapid and efficient solid-phase synthesis methods and the modular implementation of different functionalities. The discotic monomer incorporates a hydrophobic azobenzene moiety, an octaethylene glycol chain, and a C-terminal lysine. Each of these blocks was chosen for two reasons: to drive the self-assembly in water by a combination of H-bonding and hydrophobicity and to impart specific responsiveness. With a combination of microscopy and spectroscopy techniques, we demonstrate self-assembly in water and responsiveness to temperature, light, pH, and ionic strength. This work shows the potential to integrate independent mechanisms for controlling self-assembly in a single-component supramolecular polymer by the rational monomer design and paves the way toward the use of multiresponsive systems in water.

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Polenghi, Alice, Nieus, Thierry, Guazzi, Stefania, Gorostiza, Pau, Petrini, Enrica Maria, Barberis, Andrea, (2020). Kainate receptor activation shapes short-term synaptic plasticity by controlling receptor lateral mobility at glutamatergic synapses Cell Reports 31, (10), 107735

Kainate receptors (KARs) mediate postsynaptic currents with a key impact on neuronal excitability. However, the molecular determinants controlling KAR postsynaptic localization and stabilization are poorly understood. Here, we exploit optogenetic and single-particle tracking approaches to study the role of KAR conformational states induced by glutamate binding on KAR lateral mobility at synapses. We report that following glutamate binding, KARs are readily and reversibly trapped at glutamatergic synapses through increased interaction with the β-catenin/N-cadherin complex. We demonstrate that such activation-dependent synaptic immobilization of KARs is crucial for the modulation of short-term plasticity of glutamatergic synapses. Thus, the present study unveils the crosstalk between conformational states and lateral mobility of KARs, a mechanism regulating glutamatergic signaling, particularly in conditions of sustained synaptic activity.

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Rustler, Karin, Gomila, Alexandre, Maleeva, Galyna, Gorostiza, Pau, Bregestovski, Piotr, König, Burkhard, (2020). Optical control of GABAA receptors with a fulgimide-based potentiator Chemistry - A European Journal 26, (56), 12722-12727

Optogenetic and photopharmacological tools to manipulate neuronal inhibition have limited efficacy and reversibility. We report the design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of Fulgazepam, a fulgimide derivative of benzodiazepine that behaves as a pure potentiator of ionotropic γ-aminobutyric acid receptors (GABA A Rs) and displays full and reversible photoswitching in vitro and in vivo. The compound enables high-resolution studies of GABAergic neurotransmission, and phototherapies based on localized, acute, and reversible neuroinhibition.

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Gomila, Alexandre M. J., Rustler, Karin, Maleeva, Galyna, Nin-Hill, Alba, Wutz, Daniel, Bautista-Barrufet, Antoni, Rovira, Xavier, Bosch, Miquel, Mukhametova, Elvira, Petukhova, Elena, Ponomareva, Daria, Mukhamedyarov, Marat, Peiretti, Franck, Alfonso-Prieto, Mercedes, Rovira, Carme, König, Burkhard, Bregestovski, Piotr, Gorostiza, Pau, (2020). Photocontrol of endogenous glycine receptors in vivo Cell Chemical Biology 27, (11), 1425-1433.e7

Glycine receptors (GlyRs) are indispensable for maintaining excitatory/inhibitory balance in neuronal circuits that control reflexes and rhythmic motor behaviors. Here we have developed Glyght, a GlyR ligand controlled with light. It is selective over other Cys-loop receptors, is active in vivo, and displays an allosteric mechanism of action. The photomanipulation of glycinergic neurotransmission opens new avenues to understanding inhibitory circuits in intact animals and to developing drug-based phototherapies.

JTD Keywords: Glycine receptors, Photopharmacology, Optopharmacology, Inhibitory neurotransmission, CNS, Photoswitch


Camarero, N., Trapero, A., Pérez-Jiménez, A., Macia, E., Gomila-Juaneda, A., Martín-Quirós, A., Nevola, L., Llobet, A., Llebaria, A., Hernando, J., Giralt, E., Gorostiza, P., (2020). Photoswitchable dynasore analogs to control endocytosis with light Chemical Science 11, (33), 8981-8988

The spatiotemporal control of cellular dynamic processes has great fundamental interest but lacks versatile molecular tools. Dynamin is a key protein in endocytosis and an appealing target to manipulate cell trafficking using patterns of light. We have developed the first photoswitchable small-molecule inhibitors of endocytosis (dynazos), by a stepwise design of the photochromic and pharmacological properties of dynasore, a dynamin inhibitor. We have characterized their photochromism with UV-visible and transient absorption spectroscopy and their biological activity using fluorescence microscopies and flow cytometry. Dynazos are water-soluble, cell permeable, and photostable, and enable fast, single-wavelength photoswitchable inhibition of clathrin-mediated endocytosis at micromolar concentration.

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Maleeva, Galyna, Nin-Hill, Alba, Rustler, Karin, Petukhova, Elena, Ponomareva, Daria, Mukhametova, Elvira, Gomila-Juaneda, Alexandre, Wutz, Daniel, Alfonso-Prieto, Mercedes, König, Burkhard, Gorostiza, Pau, Bregestovski, Piotr, (2020). Subunit-specific photocontrol of glycine receptors by azobenzene-nitrazepam photoswitcher eneuro 8, (1), 0294-20

Photopharmacology is a unique approach that through a combination of photochemistry methods and advanced life science techniques allows the study and control of specific biological processes, ranging from intracellular pathways to brain circuits. Recently, a first photochromic channel blocker of anion-selective GABAA receptors, Azo-NZ1, has been described. In the present study using patch-clamp technique in heterologous system and in mice brain slices, site-directed mutagenesis and molecular modelling we provide evidence of the interaction of Azo-NZ1 with glycine receptors (GlyRs) and determine the molecular basis of this interaction. Glycinergic synaptic neurotransmission determines an important inhibitory drive in the vertebrate nervous system and plays a crucial role in the control of neuronal circuits in the spinal cord and brain stem. GlyRs are involved in locomotion, pain sensation, breathing and auditory function, as well as in the development of such disorders as hyperekplexia, epilepsy and autism. Here we demonstrate that Azo-NZ1 blocks in a UV dependent manner the activity of alpha2 GlyRs (GlyR2), while being barely active on alpha1 GlyRs (GlyR1). The site of Azo-NZ1 action is in the chloride-selective pore of GlyR at the 2’ position of transmembrane helix 2 and amino acids forming this site determine the difference in Azo-NZ1 blocking activity between GlyR2 and GlyR1. This subunit specific modulation is also shown on motoneurons of brainstem slices from neonatal mice that switch during development from expressing "foetal" GlyR2 to "adult" GlyR1 receptors. Significance Statement Photochromic molecules are becoming widely used for studying and modulating various biological processes. Successful application of these compounds, whose activity can be controlled with light, potentially provides a promising tool for future therapeutic approaches. The main advantage of such compounds is their precise spatial and temporal selectivity, a property that favours specific drug action and diminishes their side effects. In the present study, we describe in detail the interaction of the novel azobenzene-nitrazepam-based photochromic compound (Azo-NZ1) with glycine receptors (GlyRs) and determine its subunit-specific blocking activity in the Cl-selective pore of GlyRs. This compound offers a new strategy for specific control of glycinergic circuits and stepping stone for design of new GlyR-active drugs.

JTD Keywords: Brain slices, Glycine receptors, Hypoglossal motoneurons, Molecular modelling, Patch-clamp, Photopharmacology


Nin-Hill, Alba, Maleeva, Galyna, Gomila-Juaneda, Alexandre, Wutz, Daniel, Rustler, Karin, Bautista-Barrufet, Antoni, Rovira, Xavier, Bosch, Miquel, Scholze, Petra, Peiretti, Franck, Rovira, Carme, König, Burkhard, Gorostiza, Pau, Bregestovski, Piotr, Prieto, Mercedes Alfonso, (2020). Photomodulation of inhibitory neurotransmission. Insights from molecular modeling Biophysical Journal Biophysical Society 64th Annual Meeting , CellPress (San Diego (USA)) 118, (3), 325a-326a

Photoswitches are molecules that change their conformation with light of specific wavelength. These light-regulated molecules can be designed to target ion channels, thus providing a unique tool for precise spatial and temporal control of ion channel functioning. Recently, we have applied a multidisciplinary approach to design, synthesize and functionally characterize two of such photoswitches, azo-NZ1 [Maleeva et al. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2019] and Glyght [Gomila-Juaneda et al. BioRxiv 2019], targeting GABA and glycine receptors, respectively. Using homology modeling and molecular docking, we have provided a molecular explanation of the light-dependent effect of these two photoswitchable ligands, as observed in in vitro electrophysiology experiments and in vivo tadpole behavioral assays. Azo-NZ1 is composed of a nitrazepam moiety merged to an azobenzene photoisomerizable group, yet it has an inhibitory effect on GABA A receptors under visible light and also inhibits benzodiazepine-insensitive GABA C (rho2) receptors. Molecular modeling, combined with electrophysiology and mutagenesis experiments, shows that addition of the sulfonyl azobenzene unexpectedly converts the ligand into a pore blocker. Glyght is also an azobenzene-containing benzodiazepine, yet it acts selectively on glycine receptors as a negative modulator and its inhibitory action increases under UV light. Molecular modeling suggests that Glyght binds to a novel allosteric site located at the interface between the extracellular and transmembrane domains. The two aforementioned photoswitches pave the way towards photomanipulation of inhibitory (gabaergic and glycinergic) neurotransmission, with potential applications in understanding inhibitory circuits in intact animals and in development of drug-based phototherapies

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Riefolo, F., Matera, C., Garrido-Charles, A., Gomila, A., Sortino, R., Agnetta, L., Claro, E., Masgrau, R., Holzgrabe, U., Batlle, M., Decker, M., Guasch, E., Gorostiza, P., (2019). Optical control of cardiac function with a photoswitchable muscarinic agonist Journal of the American Chemical Society 141, (18), 7628-7636

Light-triggered reversible modulation of physiological functions offers the promise of enabling on-demand spatiotemporally controlled therapeutic interventions. Optogenetics has been successfully implemented in the heart, but significant barriers to its use in the clinic remain, such as the need for genetic transfection. Herein, we present a method to modulate cardiac function with light through a photoswitchable compound and without genetic manipulation. The molecule, named PAI, was designed by introduction of a photoswitch into the molecular structure of an M2 mAChR agonist. In vitro assays revealed that PAI enables light-dependent activation of M2 mAChRs. To validate the method, we show that PAI photoisomers display different cardiac effects in a mammalian animal model, and demonstrate reversible, real-time photocontrol of cardiac function in translucent wildtype tadpoles. PAI can also effectively activate M2 receptors using two-photon excitation with near-infrared light, which overcomes the scattering and low penetration of short-wave-length illumination, and offers new opportunities for intravital imaging and control of cardiac function.

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Lopez-Martinez, Montserrat, López-Ortiz, Manuel, Antinori, Maria Elena, Wientjes, Emilie, Nin-Hill, Alba, Rovira, Carme, Croce, Roberta, Díez-Pérez, Ismael, Gorostiza, Pau, (2019). Electrochemically gated long distance charge transport in photosystem I Angewandte Chemie International Edition 58, (38), 13280-13284

The transport of electrons along photosynthetic and respiratory chains involves a series of enzymatic reactions that are coupled through redox mediators, including proteins and small molecules. The use of native and synthetic redox probes is key to understand charge transport mechanisms, and to design bioelectronic sensors and solar energy conversion devices. However, redox probes have limited tunability to exchange charge at the desired electrochemical potentials (energy levels) and at different protein sites. Here, we take advantage of electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy (ECSTM) to control the Fermi level and nanometric position of the ECSTM probe in order to study electron transport in individual photosystem I (PSI) complexes. Current-distance measurements at different potentiostatic conditions indicate that PSI supports long-distance transport that is electrochemically gated near the redox potential of P700, with current extending farther under hole injection conditions.

JTD Keywords: Current decay, ECSTM, Electrochemical gate, Electron transfer, Photosynthesis


Cabré, Gisela, Garrido-Charles, Aida, Moreno, Miquel, Bosch, Miquel, Porta-de-la-Riva, Montserrat, Krieg, Michael, Gascón-Moya, Marta, Camarero, Núria, Gelabert, Ricard, Lluch, José M., Busqué, F., Hernando, Jordi, Gorostiza, Pau, Alibés, Ramon, (2019). Rationally designed azobenzene photoswitches for efficient two-photon neuronal excitation Nature Communications 10, (1), 907

Manipulation of neuronal activity using two-photon excitation of azobenzene photoswitches with near-infrared light has been recently demonstrated, but their practical use in neuronal tissue to photostimulate individual neurons with three-dimensional precision has been hampered by firstly, the low efficacy and reliability of NIR-induced azobenzene photoisomerization compared to one-photon excitation, and secondly, the short cis state lifetime of the two-photon responsive azo switches. Here we report the rational design based on theoretical calculations and the synthesis of azobenzene photoswitches endowed with both high two-photon absorption cross section and slow thermal back-isomerization. These compounds provide optimized and sustained two-photon neuronal stimulation both in light-scattering brain tissue and in Caenorhabditis elegans nematodes, displaying photoresponse intensities that are comparable to those achieved under one-photon excitation. This finding opens the way to use both genetically targeted and pharmacologically selective azobenzene photoswitches to dissect intact neuronal circuits in three dimensions.

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Pittolo, Silvia, Lee, Hyojung, Lladó, Anna, Tosi, Sébastien, Bosch, Miquel, Bardia, Lídia, Gómez-Santacana, Xavier, Llebaria, Amadeu, Soriano, Eduardo, Colombelli, Julien, Poskanzer, Kira E., Perea, Gertrudis, Gorostiza, Pau, (2019). Reversible silencing of endogenous receptors in intact brain tissue using two-photon pharmacology Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 116, (27), 13680-13689

The physiological activity of proteins is often studied with loss-of-function genetic approaches, but the corresponding phenotypes develop slowly and can be confounding. Photopharmacology allows direct, fast, and reversible control of endogenous protein activity, with spatiotemporal resolution set by the illumination method. Here, we combine a photoswitchable allosteric modulator (alloswitch) and 2-photon excitation using pulsed near-infrared lasers to reversibly silence metabotropic glutamate 5 (mGlu5) receptor activity in intact brain tissue. Endogenous receptors can be photoactivated in neurons and astrocytes with pharmacological selectivity and with an axial resolution between 5 and 10 µm. Thus, 2-photon pharmacology using alloswitch allows investigating mGlu5-dependent processes in wild-type animals, including synaptic formation and plasticity, and signaling pathways from intracellular organelles.

JTD Keywords: Photopharmacology, Photoactivation, Pharmacological selectivity, Functional silencing, 2-photon pharmacology


Maleeva, Galyna, Wutz, Daniel, Rustler, Karin, Nin-Hill, Alba, Rovira, Carme, Petukhova, Elena, Bautista-Barrufet, Antoni, Gomila-Juaneda, Alexandre, Scholze, Petra, Peiretti, Franck, Alfonso-Prieto, Mercedes, König, Burkhard, Gorostiza, Pau, Bregestovski, Piotr, (2019). A photoswitchable GABA receptor channel blocker British Journal of Pharmacology 176, (15), 2661-2677

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Anion-selective Cys-loop receptors (GABA and glycine receptors) provide the main inhibitory drive in the CNS. Both types of receptor operate via chloride-selective ion channels, though with different kinetics, pharmacological profiles, and localization. Disequilibrium in their function leads to a variety of disorders, which are often treated with allosteric modulators. The few available GABA and glycine receptor channel blockers effectively suppress inhibitory currents in neurons, but their systemic administration is highly toxic. With the aim of developing an efficient light-controllable modulator of GABA receptors, we constructed azobenzene-nitrazepam (Azo-NZ1), which is composed of a nitrazepam moiety merged to an azobenzene photoisomerizable group. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: The experiments were carried out on cultured cells expressing Cys-loop receptors of known subunit composition and in brain slices using patch-clamp. Site-directed mutagenesis and molecular modelling approaches were applied to evaluate the mechanism of action of Azo-NZ1. KEY RESULTS: At visible light, being in trans‐configuration, Azo-NZ1 blocked heteromeric α1/β2/γ2 GABAA receptors, ρ2 GABAA (GABAC), and α2 glycine receptors, whereas switching the compound into cis-state by UV illumination restored the activity. Azo-NZ1 successfully photomodulated GABAergic currents recorded from dentate gyrus neurons. We demonstrated that in trans-configuration, Azo-NZ1 blocks the Cl-selective ion pore of GABA receptors interacting mainly with the 2′ level of the TM2 region. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Azo-NZ1 is a soluble light-driven Cl-channel blocker, which allows photo-modulation of the activity induced by anion-selective Cys-loop receptors. Azo-NZ1 is able to control GABAergic postsynaptic currents and provides new opportunities to study inhibitory neurotransmission using patterned illumination.

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Cabré, Gisela, Garrido-Charles, Aida, González-Lafont, Àngels, Moormann, Widukind, Langbehn, Daniel, Egea, David, Lluch, José M., Herges, Rainer, Alibés, Ramon, Busqué, Félix, Gorostiza, Pau, Hernando, Jordi, (2019). Synthetic photoswitchable neurotransmitters based on bridged azobenzenes Organic Letters 21, (10), 3780-3784

Photoswitchable neurotransmitters of ionotropic kainate receptors were synthesized by tethering a glutamate moiety to disubstituted C2-bridged azobenzenes, which were prepared through a novel methodology that allows access to diazocines with higher yields and versatility. Because of the singular properties of these photochromes, photoisomerizable compounds were obtained with larger thermal stability for their inert cis isomer than for their biologically activity trans state. This enabled selective neuronal firing upon irradiation without background activity in the dark.

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Nevola, Laura, Varese, Monica, Martín-Quirós, Andrés, Mari, Giacomo, Eckelt, Kay, Gorostiza, Pau, Giralt, Ernest, (2019). Targeted nanoswitchable inhibitors of protein-protein interactions involved in apoptosis ChemMedChem 14, 100-106

Progress in drug delivery is hampered by the lack of efficient strategies to target drugs with high specificity and precise spatiotemporal regulation. The remote control of nanoparticles and drugs with light allows controlling their action site and dosage. Peptide-based drugs are very specific, non-immunogenic and can be designed to cross the plasma membrane. In order to combine target specificity and remote control of drug action, here we describe a versatile strategy based on a generalized template to design nanoswitchable peptides that modulate protein-protein interactions with light. This approach is demonstrated to photomodulate two important targets involved in apoptosis (the interactions Bcl-xL/Bak and MDM2/p53), but can be applied to a large pool of therapeutically relevant protein-protein interactions mediated by alpha helical motifs. The template can be adjusted using readily available information about the hot spots (residues contributing most to the binding energy) at the protein-protein interface of interest.

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Matera, C., Gomila, A. M. J., Camarero, N., Libergoli, M., Soler, C., Gorostiza, P., (2019). Photochromic antifolate for light-activated chemotherapy Proceedings of SPIE 17th International Photodynamic Association World Congress , SPIE (Cambridge, USA) 11070, 110709H

Although cytotoxic chemotherapy is one of the primary pharmacological treatments for chronic hyperproliferative diseases such as cancer and psoriasis, its efficacy and tolerability are in many cases dramatically limited by off-target toxicity. A promising approach to improve these therapies is to activate the drugs exclusively at their desired place of action. In fact, in those diseases that would benefit from a highly localized treatment, a precise spatiotemporal control over the activity of a chemotherapeutic agent would allow reducing the concentration of active compound outside the targeted region, improving the tolerability of the treatment. Light is a powerful tool in this respect: it offers unparalleled opportunities as a non-invasive regulatory signal for pharmacological applications because it can be delivered with high precision regarding space, time, intensity and wavelength. Photopharmacology represents a new and emerging approach in this regard since the energy of light is used to change the structure of the drug and hence to switch its pharmacological activity on and off on demand. We describe here phototrexate, the first light-regulated inhibitor of the human DHFR. Enzyme and cell viability assays demonstrated that phototrexate behaves as a potent antifolate in its cis configuration, obtained under UVA illumination, and that it is nearly inactive in its dark-relaxed trans form. Experiments in zebrafish confirmed that phototrexate can disrupt folate metabolism in a light-dependent fashion also in vivo. Overall, phototrexate represents a potential candidate towards the development of an innovative photoactivated antifolate chemotherapy.

JTD Keywords: Cancer, Dermatology, Methotrexate, Photoactivated chemotherapy, Photodynamic therapy, Phototherapy, Psoriasis, Rheumatoid arthritis


Matera, Carlo, Gomila-Juaneda, Alexandre, Camarero, Núria, Libergoli, Michela, Soler, Concepció, Gorostiza, Pau, (2018). A photoswitchable antimetabolite for targeted photoactivated chemotherapy Journal of the American Chemical Society 140, (46), 15764-15773

The efficacy and tolerability of systemically administered anticancer agents are limited by their off-target effects. Precise spatiotemporal control over their cytotoxic activity would allow improving chemotherapy treatments, and light-regulated drugs are well suited to this purpose. We have developed phototrexate, the first photoswitchable inhibitor of the human dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), as a photochromic analog of methotrexate, a widely prescribed chemotherapeutic drug to treat cancer and psoriasis. Quantification of the light-regulated DHFR enzymatic activity, cell proliferation, and in vivo effects in zebrafish show that phototrexate behaves as a potent antifolate in its photoactivated cis configuration, and that it is nearly inactive in its dark-relaxed trans form. Thus, phototrexate constitutes a proof-of-concept to design light-regulated cytotoxic small molecules, and a step forward to develop targeted anticancer photochemotherapies with localized efficacy and reduced adverse effects.

JTD Keywords: Photopharmacology, Photodynamic therapy, Antiproliferative, Arthritis, Psoriasis, Nanomedicine


Lagunas, A., Guerra-Castellano, A., Nin-Hill, A., Díaz-Moreno, I., De la Rosa, M. A., Samitier, J., Rovira, C., Gorostiza, P., (2018). Long distance electron transfer through the aqueous solution between redox partner proteins Nature Communications 9, (1), 5157

Despite the importance of electron transfer between redox proteins in photosynthesis and respiration, the inter-protein electron transfer rate between redox partner proteins has never been measured as a function of their separation in aqueous solution. Here, we use electrochemical tunneling spectroscopy to show that the current between two protein partners decays along more than 10 nm in the solution. Molecular dynamics simulations reveal a reduced ionic density and extended electric field in the volume confined between the proteins. The distance-decay factor and the calculated local barrier for electron transfer are regulated by the electrochemical potential applied to the proteins. Redox partners could use electrochemically gated, long distance electron transfer through the solution in order to conciliate high specificity with weak binding, thus keeping high turnover rates in the crowded environment of cells.

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Bregestovski, Piotr, Maleeva, Galyna, Gorostiza, Pau, (2018). Light-induced regulation of ligand-gated channel activity British Journal of Pharmacology 175, (11), 1892-1902

The control of ligand-gated receptors with light using photochromic compounds has evolved from the first handcrafted examples to accurate, engineered receptors, whose development is supported by rational design, high-resolution protein structures, comparative pharmacology and molecular biology manipulations. Photoswitchable regulators have been designed and characterized for a large number of ligand-gated receptors in the mammalian nervous system, including nicotinic acetylcholine, glutamate and GABA receptors. They provide a well-equipped toolbox to investigate synaptic and neuronal circuits in all-optical experiments. This focused review discusses the design and properties of these photoswitches, their applications and shortcomings and future perspectives in the field.

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Casanellas, Ignasi, Lagunas, Anna, Tsintzou, Iro, Vida, Yolanda, Collado, Daniel, Pérez-Inestrosa, Ezequiel, Rodríguez-Pereira, Cristina, Magalhaes, Joana, Gorostiza, Pau, Andrades, José A., Becerra, José, Samitier, Josep, (2018). Dendrimer-based uneven nanopatterns to locally control surface adhesiveness: A method to direct chondrogenic differentiation Journal of Visualized Experiments Bioengineering, (131), e56347

Cellular adhesion and differentiation is conditioned by the nanoscale disposition of the extracellular matrix (ECM) components, with local concentrations having a major effect. Here we present a method to obtain large-scale uneven nanopatterns of arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD)-functionalized dendrimers that permit the nanoscale control of local RGD surface density. Nanopatterns are formed by surface adsorption of dendrimers from solutions at different initial concentrations and are characterized by water contact angle (CA), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and scanning probe microscopy techniques such as scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The local surface density of RGD is measured using AFM images by means of probability contour maps of minimum interparticle distances and then correlated with cell adhesion response and differentiation. The nanopatterning method presented here is a simple procedure that can be scaled up in a straightforward manner to large surface areas. It is thus fully compatible with cell culture protocols and can be applied to other ligands that exert concentration-dependent effects on cells.

JTD Keywords: Bioengineering, Dendrimer, Nanopattern, Arginine-Glycine-Aspartic Acid (RGD), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Cell Adhesion, Mesenchymal Stem Cells (Mscs), Chondrogenesis


Calvé, Pablo, Gorostiza, Pau, (2017). Estrategias optogenéticas y fotofarmacológicas para restablecer la visión Visión , 51, 6-13

La mayoría de los casos de ceguera están causados por defectos en el ojo. Generalmente, estas alteraciones se producen por daños en las vías ópticas que conducen a la retina y son necesarias para el enfoque de las imágenes. A día de hoy, es posible tratar y curar estos impedimentos ópticos. Por ejemplo, la cirugía de cataratas para extraer una lente opaca y reemplazarla con una lente artificial se lleva a cabo rutinariamente en muchas partes del mundo y los trasplantes de córnea con córneas naturales o artificiales comúnmente tienen éxito. Sin embargo, existen casos de ceguera que afectan a un porcentaje considerable de la población y no disponen de tratamiento. La mayor parte de las cegueras incurables son debidas a las enfermedades neurodegenerativas de la retina, que se caracterizan, la mayoría de las veces, por pérdida de las células fotorreceptoras. En estas enfermedades, los fotorreceptores se dañan y mueren en un proceso de apoptosis que eventualmente provoca la ceguera. Sin embargo, las neuronas situadas en las capas internas de la retina permanecen intactas durante un periodo de tiempo prolongado, antes de que la retina sufra procesos de remodelización en las etapas finales de la enfermedad. Entre las enfermedades neurodegenerativas de la retina, la retinosis pigmentaria y la degeneración macular asociada a la edad son las más comunes. De este modo, debido a que las neurodegeneraciones retinianas provocan afectaciones en la visión y pueden inducir ceguera completa en los casos más graves, es necesario buscar y estudiar nuevos tratamientos terapéuticos. Hoy en día, muchos laboratorios de investigación están desarrollando terapias para este tipo de enfermedades, dirigidas a restaurar la función de las células fotorreceptoras en el ojo ciego o bien a sustituir la pérdida de la función fotorreceptora, pretendiendo que las neuronas retinianas restantes sean directamente sensibles a la luz. Estas aproximaciones terapéuticas engloban desde prótesis electrónicas hasta células madre y terapia génica.

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Ruiz, Marta P., Aragones, Albert C., Camarero, Nuria, Vilhena, J. G., Ortega, Maria, Zotti, Linda Angela, Perez, Ruben, Cuevas, Juan Carlos, Gorostiza, Pau, Díez-Pérez, Ismael, (2017). Bioengineering a single-protein junction Journal of the American Chemical Society 139, (43), 15337–15346

Bioelectronics moves toward designing nanoscale electronic platforms that allow in vivo determinations. Such devices require interfacing complex biomolecular moieties as the sensing units to an electronic platform for signal transduction. Inevitably, a systematic design goes through a bottom-up understanding of the structurally related electrical signatures of the biomolecular circuit, which will ultimately lead us to tailor its electrical properties. Toward this aim, we show here the first example of bioengineered charge transport in a single-protein electrical contact. The results reveal that a single point-site mutation at the docking hydrophobic patch of a Cu-azurin causes minor structural distortion of the protein blue Cu site and a dramatic change in the charge transport regime of the single-protein contact, which goes from the classical Cu-mediated two-step transport in this system to a direct coherent tunneling. Our extensive spectroscopic studies and molecular-dynamics simulations show that the proteins’ folding structures are preserved in the single-protein junction. The DFT-computed frontier orbital of the relevant protein segments suggests that the Cu center participation in each protein variant accounts for the different observed charge transport behavior. This work is a direct evidence of charge transport control in a protein backbone through external mutagenesis and a unique nanoscale platform to study structurally related biological electron transfer.

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Gómez-Santacana, Xavier, Pittolo, Silvia, Rovira, Xavier, Lopez, Marc, Zussy, Charleine, Dalton, James A. R., Faucherre, Adèle, Jopling, Chris, Pin, Jean-Philippe, Ciruela, Francisco, Goudet, Cyril, Giraldo, Jesús, Gorostiza, Pau, Llebaria, Amadeu, (2017). Illuminating phenylazopyridines to photoswitch metabotropic glutamate receptors: From the flask to the animals ACS Central Science , 3, (1), 81-91

Phenylazopyridines are photoisomerizable compounds with high potential to control biological functions with light. We have obtained a series of phenylazopyridines with light dependent activity as negative allosteric modulators (NAM) of metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGlu5). Here we describe the factors needed to achieve an operational molecular photoisomerization and its effective translation into in vitro and in vivo receptor photoswitching, which includes zebrafish larva motility and the regulation of the antinociceptive effects in mice. The combination of light and some specific phenylazopyridine ligands displays atypical pharmacological profiles, including light-dependent receptor overactivation, which can be observed both in vitro and in vivo. Remarkably, the localized administration of light and a photoswitchable compound in the peripheral tissues of rodents or in the brain amygdalae results in an illumination-dependent analgesic effect. The results reveal a robust translation of the phenylazopyridine photoisomerization to a precise photoregulation of biological activity.

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López-Martínez, Montserrat, Artés, Juan Manuel, Sarasso, Veronica, Carminati, Marco, Díez-Pérez, Ismael, Sanz, Fausto, Gorostiza, Pau, (2017). Differential electrochemical conductance imaging at the nanoscale Small 13, (36), 1700958

Electron transfer in proteins is essential in crucial biological processes. Although the fundamental aspects of biological electron transfer are well characterized, currently there are no experimental tools to determine the atomic-scale electronic pathways in redox proteins, and thus to fully understand their outstanding efficiency and environmental adaptability. This knowledge is also required to design and optimize biomolecular electronic devices. In order to measure the local conductance of an electrode surface immersed in an electrolyte, this study builds upon the current–potential spectroscopic capacity of electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy, by adding an alternating current modulation technique. With this setup, spatially resolved, differential electrochemical conductance images under bipotentiostatic control are recorded. Differential electrochemical conductance imaging allows visualizing the reversible oxidation of an iron electrode in borate buffer and individual azurin proteins immobilized on atomically flat gold surfaces. In particular, this method reveals submolecular regions with high conductance within the protein. The direct observation of nanoscale conduction pathways in redox proteins and complexes enables important advances in biochemistry and bionanotechnology.

JTD Keywords: Differential electrochemical conductance, ECSTM, Electron transport pathway, Iron passivation, Redox metalloproteins


Gómez-Santacana, Xavier, Dalton, James A. R., Rovira, Xavier, Pin, Jean Philippe, Goudet, Cyril, Gorostiza, Pau, Giraldo, Jesús, Llebaria, Amadeu, (2017). Positional isomers of bispyridine benzene derivatives induce efficacy changes on mGlu5 negative allosteric modulation European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 127, 567-576

Modulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGlu5) with partial allosteric antagonists has received increased interest due to their favourable in vivo activity profiles compared to the unfavourable side-effects of full inverse agonists. Here we report on a series of bispyridine benzene derivatives with a functional molecular switch affecting antagonistic efficacy, shifting from inverse agonism to partial antagonism with only a single change in the substitution pattern of the benzene ring. These efficacy changes are explained through computational docking, revealing two different receptor conformations of different energetic stability and different positional isomer binding preferences.

JTD Keywords: mGlu5, Isomers, Partial efficacy, NAM, Antagonist, Inverse agonist


Terni, Beatrice, Pacciolla, Paolo, Masanas, Helena, Gorostiza, Pau, Llobet, Artur, (2017). Tight temporal coupling between synaptic rewiring of olfactory glomeruli and the emergence of odor-guided behavior in Xenopus tadpoles Journal of Comparative Neurology , 525, (17), 3769-3783

Olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) are chemoreceptors that establish excitatory synapses within glomeruli of the olfactory bulb. OSNs undergo continuous turnover throughout life, causing the constant replacement of their synaptic contacts. Using Xenopus tadpoles as an experimental system to investigate rewiring of glomerular connectivity, we show that novel OSN synapses can transfer information immediately after formation, mediating olfactory-guided behavior. Tadpoles recover the ability to detect amino acids 4 days after bilateral olfactory nerve transection. Restoration of olfactory-guided behavior depends on the efficient reinsertion of OSNs to the olfactory bulb. Presynaptic terminals of incipient synaptic contacts generate calcium transients in response to odors, triggering long lasting depolarization of olfactory glomeruli. The functionality of reconnected terminals relies on well-defined readily releasable and cytoplasmic vesicle pools. The continuous growth of non-compartmentalized axonal processes provides a vesicle reservoir to nascent release sites, which contrasts to the gradual development of cytoplasmic vesicle pools in conventional excitatory synapses. The immediate availability of fully functional synapses upon formation supports an age-independent contribution of OSNs to the generation of odor maps.

JTD Keywords: Olfactory receptor neurons, Olfactory bulb, Presynaptic terminals, RRID:SCR_013731, RRID:SCR_007164, RRID: AB-887824, RRID: AB-221570, Synaptic vesicles


Rovira, Xavier, Trapero, Ana, Pittolo, Silvia, Zussy, Charleine, Faucherre, Adèle, Jopling, Chris, Giraldo, Jesús, Pin, Jean-Philippe, Gorostiza, Pau, Goudet, Cyril, Llebaria, Amadeu, (2016). OptoGluNAM4.1, a Photoswitchable allosteric antagonist for real-time control of mGlu4 receptor activity Cell Chemical Biology 23, (8), 929-934

OptoGluNAM4.1, a negative allosteric modulator (NAM) of metabotropic glutamate receptor 4 (mGlu4) contains a reactive group that covalently binds to the receptor and a blue-light-activated, fast-relaxing azobenzene group that allows reversible receptor activity photocontrol in vitro and in vivo. OptoGluNAM4.1 induces light-dependent behavior in zebrafish and reverses the activity of the mGlu4 agonist LSP4-2022 in a mice model of chronic pain, defining a photopharmacological tool to better elucidate the physiological roles of the mGlu4 receptor in the nervous system.

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Izquierdo-Serra, M., Bautista-Barrufet, A., Trapero, A., Garrido-Charles, A., Diaz-Tahoces, A., Camarero, N., Pittolo, S., Valbuena, S., Perez-Jimenez, A., Gay, M., Garcia-Moll, A., Rodriguez-Escrich, C., Lerma, J., De La Villa, P., Fernandez, E., Pericas, M. A., Llebaria, A., Gorostiza, P., (2016). Optical control of endogenous receptors and cellular excitability using targeted covalent photoswitches Nature Communications 7, 12221

Light-regulated drugs allow remotely photoswitching biological activity and enable plausible therapies based on small molecules. However, only freely diffusible photochromic ligands have been shown to work directly in endogenous receptors and methods for covalent attachment depend on genetic manipulation. Here we introduce a chemical strategy to covalently conjugate and photoswitch the activity of endogenous proteins and demonstrate its application to the kainate receptor channel GluK1. The approach is based on photoswitchable ligands containing a short-lived, highly reactive anchoring group that is targeted at the protein of interest by ligand affinity. These targeted covalent photoswitches (TCPs) constitute a new class of light-regulated drugs and act as prosthetic molecules that photocontrol the activity of GluK1-expressing neurons, and restore photoresponses in degenerated retina. The modularity of TCPs enables the application to different ligands and opens the way to new therapeutic opportunities.

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A. R. Dalton, J., Lans, I., Rovira, X., Malhaire, F., Gómez-Santacana, X., Pittolo, S., Gorostiza, P., Llebaria, A., Goudet, C., Pin, J-P., Giraldo, J., (2016). Shining light on an mGlu5 photoswitchable NAM: A theoretical perspective Current Neuropharmacology , 14, (5), 441-454

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are important drug targets because of their involvement in several neurological diseases. Among mGluRs, mGlu5 is a particularly high-profile target because its positive or negative allosteric modulation can potentially treat schizophrenia or anxiety and chronic pain, respectively. Here, we computationally and experimentally probe the functional binding of a novel photoswitchable mGlu5 NAM, termed alloswitch-1, which loses its NAM functionality under violet light. We show alloswitch-1 binds deep in the allosteric pocket in a similar fashion to mavoglurant, the co-crystallized NAM in the mGlu5 transmembrane domain crystal structure. Alloswitch-1, like NAM 2-Methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine (MPEP), is significantly affected by P655M mutation deep in the allosteric pocket, eradicating its functionality. In MD simulations, we show alloswitch-1 and MPEP stabilize the co-crystallized water molecule located at the bottom of the allosteric site that is seemingly characteristic of the inactive receptor state. Furthermore, both NAMs form H-bonds with S809 on helix 7, which may constitute an important stabilizing interaction for NAM-induced mGlu5 inactivation. Alloswitch-1, through isomerization of its amide group from trans to cis is able to form an additional interaction with N747 on helix 5. This may be an important interaction for amide-containing mGlu5 NAMs, helping to stabilize their binding in a potentially unusual cis-amide state. Simulated conformational switching of alloswitch-1 in silico suggests photoisomerization of its azo group from trans to cis may be possible within the allosteric pocket. However, photoexcited alloswitch-1 binds in an unstable fashion, breaking H-bonds with the protein and destabilizing the co-crystallized water molecule. This suggests photoswitching may have destabilizing effects on mGlu5 binding and functionality.

JTD Keywords: Allosteric modulation, Docking, Metabotropic glutamate receptor, Molecular dynamics, Mutation, Protein structure, Transmembrane domain


Martín-Quirós, Andrés, Nevola, Laura, Eckelt, Kay, Madurga, Sergio, Gorostiza, Pau, Giralt, Ernest, (2015). Absence of a stable secondary structure is not a limitation for photoswitchable inhibitors of β-Arrestin/β-Adaptin 2 protein-protein interaction Chemistry & Biology , 22, (1), 31-37

Many protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are mediated by short, often helical, linear peptides. Molecules mimicking these peptides have been used to inhibit their PPIs. Recently, photoswitchable peptides with little secondary structure have been developed as modulators of clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Here we perform a systematic analysis of a series of azobenzene-crosslinked peptides based on a β-arrestin P-long 20-mer peptide (BAP-long) sequence to assess the relevance of secondary structure in their interaction with β-adaptin 2 and to identify the design requirements for photoswitchable inhibitors of PPI (PIPPIs). We observe that flexible structures show a greater inhibitory capacity and enhanced photoswitching ability and that the absence of helical structures in free inhibitor peptide is not a limitation for PIPPI candidates. Therefore, our PIPPIs expand the field of potential inhibitors of PPIs to the wide group of flexible peptides, and we argue against using a stable secondary structure as a sole criterion when designing PIPPI candidates.

JTD


Gascón-Moya, Marta, Pejoan, Arnau, Izquierdo-Serra, M., Pittolo, Silvia, Cabrè, Gisela, Hernando, Jordi, Alibés, Ramon, Gorostiza, Pau, Busque, Felix, (2015). An optimized glutamate receptor photoswitch with sensitized azobenzene isomerization Journal of Organic Chemistry 80, (20), 9915-9925

A new azobenzene-based photoswitch, 2, has been designed to enable optical control of ionotropic glutamate receptors in neurons via sensitized two-photon excitation with NIR light. In order to develop an efficient and versatile synthetic route for this molecule, a modular strategy is described which relies on the use of a new linear fully protected glutamate derivative stable in basic media. The resulting compound undergoes one-photon trans-cis photoisomerization via two different mechanisms: direct excitation of its azoaromatic unit, and irradiation of the pyrene sensitizer, a well known two-photon sensitive chromophore. Moreover, 2 presents large thermal stability of its cis isomer, in contrast to other two-photon responsive switches relying on the intrinsic non-linear optical properties of push-pull substituted azobenzenes. As a result, the molecular system developed herein is a very promising candidate for evoking large photoinduced biological responses during the multiphoton operation of neuronal glutamate receptors with NIR light, which require accumulation of the protein-bound cis state of the switch upon repeated illumination. A new azobenzene-based photoswitch, 2, has been designed to enable optical control of ionotropic glutamate receptors in neurons via sensitized two-photon excitation with NIR light. In order to develop an efficient and versatile synthetic route for this molecule, a modular strategy is described which relies on the use of a new linear fully protected glutamate derivative stable in basic media. The resulting compound undergoes one-photon trans-cis photoisomerization via two different mechanisms: direct excitation of its azoaromatic unit, and irradiation of the pyrene sensitizer, a well known two-photon sensitive chromophore. Moreover, 2 presents large thermal stability of its cis isomer, in contrast to other two-photon responsive switches relying on the intrinsic non-linear optical properties of push-pull substituted azobenzenes. As a result, the molecular system developed herein is a very promising candidate for evoking large photoinduced biological responses during the multiphoton operation of neuronal glutamate receptors with NIR light, which require accumulation of the protein-bound cis state of the switch upon repeated illumination.

JTD


Giannotti, M. I., Cabeza de Vaca, Israel, Artés, Juan Manuel, Sanz, Fausto, Guallar, Victor, Gorostiza, Pau, (2015). Direct measurement of the nanomechanical stability of a redox protein active site and its dependence upon metal binding Journal of Physical Chemistry B , 119, (36), 12050-12058

The structural basis of the low reorganization energy of cupredoxins has long been debated. These proteins reconcile a conformationally heterogeneous and exposed metal-chelating site with the highly rigid copper center required for efficient electron transfer. Here we combine single-molecule mechanical unfolding experiments with statistical analysis and computer simulations to show that the metal-binding region of apo-azurin is mechanically flexible and that high mechanical stability is imparted by copper binding. The unfolding pathway of the metal site depends on the pulling residue and suggests that partial unfolding of the metal binding site could be facilitated by the physical interaction with certain regions of the redox protein. The structural basis of the low reorganization energy of cupredoxins has long been debated. These proteins reconcile a conformationally heterogeneous and exposed metal-chelating site with the highly rigid copper center required for efficient electron transfer. Here we combine single-molecule mechanical unfolding experiments with statistical analysis and computer simulations to show that the metal-binding region of apo-azurin is mechanically flexible and that high mechanical stability is imparted by copper binding. The unfolding pathway of the metal site depends on the pulling residue and suggests that partial unfolding of the metal binding site could be facilitated by the physical interaction with certain regions of the redox protein.

JTD


Eckelt, Kay, Masanas, Helena, Llobet, Artur, Gorostiza, P., (2014). Automated high-throughput measurement of body movements and cardiac activity of Xenopus tropicalis tadpoles Journal of Biological Methods , 1, (2), e9

Xenopus tadpoles are an emerging model for developmental, genetic and behavioral studies. A small size, optical accessibility of most of their organs, together with a close genetic and structural relationship to humans make them a convenient experimental model. However, there is only a limited toolset available to measure behavior and organ function of these animals at medium or high-throughput. Herein, we describe an imaging-based platform to quantify body and autonomic movements of Xenopus tropicalis tadpoles of advanced developmental stages. Animals alternate periods of quiescence and locomotor movements and display buccal pumping for oxygen uptake from water and rhythmic cardiac movements. We imaged up to 24 animals in parallel and automatically tracked and quantified their movements by using image analysis software. Animal trajectories, moved distances, activity time, buccal pumping rates and heart beat rates were calculated and used to characterize the effects of test compounds. We evaluated the effects of propranolol and atropine, observing a dose-dependent bradycardia and tachycardia, respectively. This imaging and analysis platform is a simple, cost-effective high-throughput in vivo assay system for genetic, toxicological or pharmacological characterizations.

JTD Keywords: Xenopus tropicalis, Animal behavior, Cardiac imaging, Motion analysis, Animal tracking, Hhigh-throughput in vivo assay


Pittolo, Silvia, Gómez-Santacana, Xavier, Eckelt, Kay, Rovira, Xavier, Dalton, James, Goudet, Cyril, Pin, Jean-Philippe, Llobet, Artur, Giraldo, Jesús, Llebaria, Amadeu, Gorostiza, Pau, (2014). An allosteric modulator to control endogenous G protein-coupled receptors with light Nature Chemical Biology , 10, (10), 813-815

Controlling drug activity with light offers the possibility of enhancing pharmacological selectivity with spatial and temporal regulation, thus enabling highly localized therapeutic effects and precise dosing patterns. Here we report on the development and characterization of what is to our knowledge the first photoswitchable allosteric modulator of a G protein–coupled receptor. Alloswitch-1 is selective for the metabotropic glutamate receptor mGlu5 and enables the optical control of endogenous mGlu5 receptors.

JTD


Izquierdo-Serra, M., Gascón-Moya, Marta, Hirtz, Jan J., Pittolo, Silvia, Poskanzer, Kira E., Ferrer, Eric, Alibés, Ramon, Busque, Felix, Yuste, Rafael, Hernando, Jordi, Gorostiza, Pau, (2014). Two-photon neuronal and astrocytic stimulation of azobenzene-based photoswitches Journal of the American Chemical Society American Chemical Society 136, (24), 8693-8701

Synthetic photochromic compounds can be designed to control a variety of proteins and their biochemical functions in living cells, but the high spatiotemporal precision and tissue penetration of two-photon stimulation has never been investigated in these molecules. Here we demonstrate two-photon excitation of azobenzene-based protein switches, and versatile strategies to enhance their photochemical responses. This enables new applications to control the activation of neurons and astrocytes with cellular and subcellular resolution.

JTD


Bautista-Barrufet, A., López-Gallego, F., Rojas-Cervellera, V., Rovira, C., Pericàs, M. A., Guisán, J. M., Gorostiza, P., (2014). Optical control of enzyme enantioselectivity in solid phase ACS Catalysis , 4, (3), 1004-1009

A lipase was immobilized on transparent agarose microspheres and genetically engineered to specifically anchor photochromic molecules into its catalytic site. Several combinations of azobenzene and spiropyran groups were conjugated to cysteines introduced at different positions near the active center. Light modulated the catalytic properties of the resulting solid bioconjugates, and such modulation depended on both the nature of the photochromic compound and the anchoring position. Covalent anchoring of azobenzene derivatives to the residue 295 of the lipase 2 from Bacillus thermocathenolatus triggered lipase preference for the S isomer under UV light, whereas visible light promoted preference for the R isomer. Molecular dynamics simulations indicate that conjugating photochromic compounds into the catalytic cavity allows manipulating the steric hindrance and binding energy of the substrates, leading to an enantioselective molecular fit in certain cases. Using this approach, we report for the first time the control of enzyme properties using light in the solid phase. A lipase was immobilized on transparent agarose microspheres and genetically engineered to specifically anchor photochromic molecules into its catalytic site. Several combinations of azobenzene and spiropyran groups were conjugated to cysteines introduced at different positions near the active center. Light modulated the catalytic properties of the resulting solid bioconjugates, and such modulation depended on both the nature of the photochromic compound and the anchoring position. Covalent anchoring of azobenzene derivatives to the residue 295 of the lipase 2 from Bacillus thermocathenolatus triggered lipase preference for the S isomer under UV light, whereas visible light promoted preference for the R isomer. Molecular dynamics simulations indicate that conjugating photochromic compounds into the catalytic cavity allows manipulating the steric hindrance and binding energy of the substrates, leading to an enantioselective molecular fit in certain cases. Using this approach, we report for the first time the control of enzyme properties using light in the solid phase.

JTD


Artés, Juan M., López-Martínez, Montserrat, Díez-Pérez, Ismael, Sanz, Fausto, Gorostiza, Pau, (2014). Conductance switching in single wired redox proteins Small 10, (13), 2537-2541

Switching events in the current flowing through individual redox proteins, (azurin) spontaneously wired between two electrodes, are studied using an electrochemical scanning tunneling microscope (ECSTM). These switching events in the current–time trace are characterized using conductance histograms, and reflect the intrinsic redox thermodynamic dispersion in the azurin population. This conductance switching may pose limitations to miniaturizing redox protein-based devices.

JTD Keywords: Bioelectronics, Protein transistors, Molecular junctions, Switches, STM


Lagunas, A., Garcia, A., Artés, J. M., Vida, Y., Collado, D., Pérez-Inestrosa, E., Gorostiza, P., Claros, S., Andrades, J. A., Samitier, J., (2014). Large-scale dendrimer-based uneven nanopatterns for the study of local arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) density effects on cell adhesion Nano Research , 7, (3), 399-409

Cell adhesion processes are governed by the nanoscale arrangement of the extracellular matrix (ECM), being more affected by local rather than global concentrations of cell adhesive ligands. In many cell-based studies, grafting of dendrimers on surfaces has shown the benefits of the local increase in concentration provided by the dendritic configuration, although the lack of any reported surface characterization has limited any direct correlation between dendrimer disposition and cell response. In order to establish a proper correlation, some control over dendrimer surface deposition is desirable. Here, dendrimer nanopatterning has been employed to address arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) density effects on cell adhesion. Nanopatterned surfaces were fully characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), showing that tunable distributions of cell adhesive ligands on the surface are obtained as a function of the initial dendrimer bulk concentration. Cell experiments showed a clear correlation with dendrimer surface layout: Substrates presenting regions of high local ligand density resulted in a higher percentage of adhered cells and a higher degree of maturation of focal adhesions (FAs). Therefore, dendrimer nanopatterning is presented as a suitable and controlled approach to address the effect of local ligand density on cell response. Moreover, due to the easy modification of dendrimer peripheral groups, dendrimer nanopatterning can be further extended to other ECM ligands having density effects on cells.

JTD Keywords: Arginine-glycine-aspartic acid, Atomic force microscopy, Cell adhesion, Dendrimer, Focal adhesions, Scanning tunneling microscopy


Bahamonde, María Isabel, Taura, Jaume, Paoletta, Silvia, Gakh, Andrei Alexandrovich, Chakraborty, Saibal, Hernando, Jordi, Fernández-Dueñas, Víctor, Jacobson, Kenneth A., Gorostiza, Pau, Ciruela, Francisco, (2014). Photomodulation of G protein-coupled adenosine receptors by a novel light-switchable ligand Bioconjugate Chemistry , American Chemical Society 25, (10), 1847-1854

The adenosinergic system operates through G protein-coupled adenosine receptors, which have become promising therapeutic targets for a wide range of pathological conditions. However, the ubiquity of adenosine receptors and the eventual lack of selectivity of adenosine-based drugs have frequently diminished their therapeutic potential. Accordingly, here we aimed to develop a new generation of light-switchable adenosine receptor ligands that change their intrinsic activity upon irradiation, thus allowing the spatiotemporal control of receptor functioning (i.e. receptor activation/inactivation dependent on location and timing). Therefore, we synthesized an orthosteric, photoisomerizable and non-selective adenosine receptor agonist, nucleoside derivative MRS5543 containing an aryl diazo linkage on the N6 substituent, which in the dark (relaxed isomer) behaved as a full adenosine A3 receptor (A3R) and partial adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR) agonist. Conversely, upon photoisomerization with blue light (460 nm), it remained a full A3R agonist but became an A2AR antagonist. Interestingly, molecular modeling suggested that structural differences encountered within the third extracellular loop of each receptor could modulate the intrinsic, receptor subtype-dependent, activity. Overall, the development of adenosine receptor ligands with photoswitchable activity expands the pharmacological toolbox in support of research and possibly opens new pharmacotherapeutic opportunities. The adenosinergic system operates through G protein-coupled adenosine receptors, which have become promising therapeutic targets for a wide range of pathological conditions. However, the ubiquity of adenosine receptors and the eventual lack of selectivity of adenosine-based drugs have frequently diminished their therapeutic potential. Accordingly, here we aimed to develop a new generation of light-switchable adenosine receptor ligands that change their intrinsic activity upon irradiation, thus allowing the spatiotemporal control of receptor functioning (i.e. receptor activation/inactivation dependent on location and timing). Therefore, we synthesized an orthosteric, photoisomerizable and non-selective adenosine receptor agonist, nucleoside derivative MRS5543 containing an aryl diazo linkage on the N6 substituent, which in the dark (relaxed isomer) behaved as a full adenosine A3 receptor (A3R) and partial adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR) agonist. Conversely, upon photoisomerization with blue light (460 nm), it remained a full A3R agonist but became an A2AR antagonist. Interestingly, molecular modeling suggested that structural differences encountered within the third extracellular loop of each receptor could modulate the intrinsic, receptor subtype-dependent, activity. Overall, the development of adenosine receptor ligands with photoswitchable activity expands the pharmacological toolbox in support of research and possibly opens new pharmacotherapeutic opportunities.

JTD


Artés, J. M., López-Martínez, M., Díez-Pérez, I., Sanz, F., Gorostiza, P., (2014). Nanoscale charge transfer in redox proteins and DNA: Towards biomolecular electronics Electrochimica Acta 140, 83-95

Understanding how charges move through and between biomolecules is a fundamental question that constitutes the basis for many biological processes. On the other hand, it has potential applications in the design of sensors based on biomolecules and single molecule devices. In this review we introduce the study of the electron transfer (ET) process in biomolecules, providing an overview of the fundamental theory behind it and the different experimental approaches. The ET in proteins is introduced by reviewing a complete electronic characterization of a redox protein (azurin) using electrochemical scanning tunnelling microscopy (ECSTM). The ET process in DNA is overviewed and results from different experimental approaches are discussed. Finally, future directions in the study of the ET process in biomolecules are introduced as well as examples of possible technological applications.

JTD Keywords: Bioelectrochemistry, Biomolecular electronics, Charge transfer, Nanobiodevice, Single-molecule junction


Gomez-Santacana, X., Rovira, X., Dalton, J. A., Goudet, C., Pin, J. P., Gorostiza, P., Giraldo, J., Llebaria, A., (2014). A double effect molecular switch leads to a novel potent negative allosteric modulator of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 MedChemComm , 5, (10), 1548-1554

Compounds that modulate the function of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) by binding to their allosteric sites are of potential interest for the treatment of multiple CNS and non-CNS disorders. Allosteric ligands can act either as positive (PAM), negative (NAM), or silent (SAM) receptor modulators and have numerous advantages over classic orthosteric compounds, including improved GPCR-subtype selectivity; the capacity to adapt to physiological conditions; and better safety profiles. Despite these benefits, allosteric modulators are difficult to design and optimize and are often prone to "molecular switching": a structural phenomenon by which very subtle chemical variations in the ligand result in unexpected changes in selectivity profiles or pharmacology, changing PAMs to NAMs or vice versa. Here, we report the discovery of a nanomolar and subtype selective NAM of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGlu5) through a targeted "double effect molecular switch" of a potent mGlu4 PAM, and suggests a promising approach towards the discovery of novel mGluR allosteric modulators.

JTD


Bautista-Barrufet, Antoni, Izquierdo-Serra, M., Gorostiza, Pau, (2014). Photoswitchable Ion Channels and Receptors Advances in Atom and Single Molecule Machines Novel Approaches for Single Molecule Activation and Detection (ed. Benfenati, Fabio, Di Fabrizio, Enzo, Torre, Vincent), Springer Berlin Heidelberg , 169-188

The development of photochromic and photoswitchable ligands for ion channels and receptors has made important contributions to optopharmacology and optogenetic pharmacology. These compounds provide new tools to study ion channel proteins and to understand their function and pathological implications. Here, we describe the design, operation, and applications of the available photoswitches, with special emphasis on ligand- and voltage-gated channels.

JTD


Gorostiza, Pau, Arosio, Daniele, Bregestovski, Piotr, (2013). Molecular probes and switches for functional analysis of receptors, ion channels and synaptic networks Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience 6, (Article 48), 1-2

Izquierdo-Serra, Mercè, Trauner, Dirk, Llobet, Artur, Gorostiza, Pau, (2013). Optical modulation of neurotransmission using calcium photocurrents through the ion channel LiGluR Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience 6, (Article 3), 1-6

A wide range of light-activated molecules (photoswitches and phototriggers) have been used to the study of computational properties of an isolated neuron by acting pre and postsynaptically. However, new tools are being pursued to elicit a presynaptic calcium influx that triggers the release of neurotransmitters, most of them based in calcium-permeable Channelrhodopsin-2 mutants. Here we describe a method to control exocytosis of synaptic vesicles through the use of a light-gated glutamate receptor (LiGluR), which has recently been demonstrated that supports secretion by means of calcium influx in chromaffin cells. Expression of LiGluR in hippocampal neurons enables reversible control of neurotransmission with light, and allows modulating the firing rate of the postsynaptic neuron with the wavelength of illumination. This method may be useful for the determination of the complex transfer function of individual synapses.

JTD Keywords: Calcium, Neurotransmission, Optogenetics, Neural coding, Firing rate, Optical control, Synaptic transfer function


Nevola, L., Martín-Quirós, A., Eckelt, K., Camarero, N., Tosi, S., Llobet, A., Giralt, E., Gorostiza, P., (2013). Light-regulated stapled peptides to inhibit protein-protein interactions involved in clathrin-mediated endocytosis Angewandte Chemie - International Edition 52, (30), 7704-7708

Control of membrane traffic: Photoswitchable inhibitors of protein-protein interactions were applied to photoregulate clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) in living cells. Traffic light (TL) peptides acting as "stop" and "go" signals for membrane traffic can be used to dissect the role of CME in receptor internalization and in cell growth, division, and differentiation.

JTD Keywords: Clathrin-mediated endocytosis, Optopharmacology, Peptides, Photoswitches, Protein-protein interactions


Izquierdo-Serra, Mercè, Trauner, Dirk, Llobet, Artur, Gorostiza, Pau, (2013). Optical control of calcium-regulated exocytosis Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects , 1830, (3), 2853-2860

Background Neurons signal to each other and to non-neuronal cells as those in muscle or glands, by means of the secretion of neurotransmitters at chemical synapses. In order to dissect the molecular mechanisms of neurotransmission, new methods for directly and reversibly triggering neurosecretion at the presynaptic terminal are necessary. Here we exploit the calcium permeability of the light-gated channel LiGluR in order to reversibly manipulate cytosolic calcium concentration, thus controlling calcium-regulated exocytosis. Methods Bovine chromaffin cells expressing LiGluR were stimulated with light. Exocytic events were detected by amperometry or by whole-cell patch-clamp to quantify membrane capacitance and calcium influx. Results Amperometry reveals that optical stimulation consistently triggers exocytosis in chromaffin cells. Secretion of catecholamines can be adjusted between zero and several Hz by changing the wavelength of illumination. Differences in secretion efficacy are found between the activation of LiGluR and native voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs). Our results show that the distance between sites of calcium influx and vesicles ready to be released is longer when calcium influx is triggered by LiGluR instead of native VGCCs. Conclusion and general significance LiGluR activation directly and reversibly increases the intracellular calcium concentration. Light-gated calcium influx allows for the first time to control calcium-regulated exocytosis without the need of applying depolarizing solutions or voltage clamping in chromaffin cells. Thus, LiGluR is a useful tool to study the secretory mechanisms and their spatiotemporal patterns in neurotransmission, and opens a window to study other calcium-dependent processes such as muscular contraction or cell migration.

JTD Keywords: Optical control, Calcium, Exocytosis, Light-gated glutamate receptor (LiGluR), Neurotransmission, Optogenetics


Raster, P., Späth, A., Bultakova, S., Gorostiza, P., König, B., Bregestovski, P., (2013). New GABA amides activating GABAA-receptors Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry , 9, 406-410

We have prepared a series of new and some literature-reported GABA-amides and determined their effect on the activation of GABA A-receptors expressed in CHO cells. Special attention was paid to the purification of the target compounds to remove even traces of GABA contaminations, which may arise from deprotection steps in the synthesis. GABA-amides were previously reported to be partial, full or superagonists. In our hands these compounds were not able to activate GABAA-receptor channels in whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. New GABA-amides, however, gave moderate activation responses with a clear structure-activity relationship suggesting some of these compounds as promising molecular tools for the functional analysis of GABAA-receptors.

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Gorostiza, Pau, (2012). Control celular mediante luz Investigación y Ciencia , 433, 11-12

Artés, Juan M., Díez-Pérez, Ismael, Gorostiza, Pau, (2012). Transistor-like behavior of single metalloprotein junctions Nano Letters 12, (6), 2679-2684

Single protein junctions consisting of azurin bridged between a gold substrate and the probe of an electrochemical tunneling microscope (ECSTM) have been obtained by two independent methods that allowed statistical analysis over a large number of measured junctions. Conductance measurements yield (7.3 ± 1.5) ? 10–6G0 in agreement with reported estimates using other techniques. Redox gating of the protein with an on/off ratio of 20 was demonstrated and constitutes a proof-of-principle of a single redox protein field-effect transistor.

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Artés, Juan M., López-Martínez, Montserrat, Giraudet, Arnaud, Díez-Pérez, Ismael, Sanz, Fausto, Gorostiza, Pau, (2012). Current–Voltage characteristics and transition voltage spectroscopy of individual redox proteins Journal of the American Chemical Society 134, (50), 20218-20221

Understanding how molecular conductance depends on voltage is essential for characterizing molecular electronics devices. We reproducibly measured current?voltage characteristics of individual redox-active proteins by scanning tunneling microscopy under potentiostatic control in both tunneling and wired configurations. From these results, transition voltage spectroscopy (TVS) data for individual redox molecules can be calculated and analyzed statistically, adding a new dimension to conductance measurements. The transition voltage (TV) is discussed in terms of the two-step electron transfer (ET) mechanism. Azurin displays the lowest TV measured to date (0.4 V), consistent with the previously reported distance decay factor. This low TV may be advantageous for fabricating and operating molecular electronic devices for different applications. Our measurements show that TVS is a helpful tool for single-molecule ET measurements and suggest a mechanism for gating of ET between partner redox proteins. Understanding how molecular conductance depends on voltage is essential for characterizing molecular electronics devices. We reproducibly measured current?voltage characteristics of individual redox-active proteins by scanning tunneling microscopy under potentiostatic control in both tunneling and wired configurations. From these results, transition voltage spectroscopy (TVS) data for individual redox molecules can be calculated and analyzed statistically, adding a new dimension to conductance measurements. The transition voltage (TV) is discussed in terms of the two-step electron transfer (ET) mechanism. Azurin displays the lowest TV measured to date (0.4 V), consistent with the previously reported distance decay factor. This low TV may be advantageous for fabricating and operating molecular electronic devices for different applications. Our measurements show that TVS is a helpful tool for single-molecule ET measurements and suggest a mechanism for gating of ET between partner redox proteins.

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Simao, C., Mas-Torrent, M., Crivillers, N., Lloveras, V., Artés, Juan Manuel, Gorostiza, Pau, Veciana, Jaume, Rovira, C., (2011). A robust molecular platform for non-volatile memory devices with optical and magnetic responses Nature Chemistry , 3, (5), 359-364

Bistable molecules that behave as switches in solution have long been known. Systems that can be reversibly converted between two stable states that differ in their physical properties are particularly attractive in the development of memory devices when immobilized in substrates. Here, we report a highly robust surface-confined switch based on an electroactive, persistent organic radical immobilized on indium tin oxide substrates that can be electrochemically and reversibly converted to the anion form. This molecular bistable system behaves as an extremely robust redox switch in which an electrical input is transduced into optical as well as magnetic outputs under ambient conditions. The fact that this molecular surface switch, operating at very low voltages, can be patterned and addressed locally, and also has exceptionally high long-term stability and excellent reversibility and reproducibility, makes it a very promising platform for non-volatile memory devices.

JTD Keywords: Self-assembled monolayers, Chromophore-based monolayers, Ultrathin platinum films, Carbon free-radicals, Per-million levels, Polychlorotriphenylmethyl radicals, Electron-transfer, Surface, Logic, Quantification


Artés, Juan M., Díez-Pérez, Ismael, Sanz, Fausto, Gorostiza, Pau, (2011). Direct measurement of electron transfer distance decay constants of single redox proteins by electrochemical tunneling spectroscopy ACS Nano 5, (3), 2060-2066

We present a method to measure directly and at the single-molecule level the distance decay constant that characterizes the rate of electron transfer (ET) in redox proteins. Using an electrochemical tunneling microscope under bipotentiostatic control, we obtained current-distance spectroscopic recordings of individual redox proteins confined within a nanometric tunneling gap at a well-defined molecular orientation. The tunneling current decays exponentially, and the corresponding decay constant (β) strongly supports a two-step tunneling ET mechanism. Statistical analysis of decay constant measurements reveals differences between the reduced and oxidized states that may be relevant to the control of ET rates in enzymes and biological electron transport chains.

JTD Keywords: Long-range electron transfer (LRET), Distance decay constant, Single-molecule electrochemistry, Redox enzyme, Metalloprotein, Blue copper protein, Azurin, Electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy and spectroscopy, Nanoelectrodes, Debye length, Electrochemical charge screening


Gorostiza, P., Isacoff, E.Y., (2011). Photoswitchable ligand-gated ion channels Photosensitive molecules for controlling biological function (ed. Chambers, J. J. , Kramer, R. H.), Springer (Saskatoon, Canada) 55, 267-285

Ligand-activated proteins can be controlled with light by means of synthetic photoisomerizable tethered ligands (PTLs). The application of PTLs to ligand-gated ion channels, including the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor and ionotropic glutamate receptors, is reviewed with emphasis on rational photoswitch design and the mechanisms of optical switching. Recently reported molecular dynamic methods allow simulation with high reliability of novel PTLs for any ligand-activated protein whose structure is known.

JTD Keywords: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, Kainate receptor, Glutamate receptor, Photoisomerizable tether ligand (PTL), Optical switch, Nanotoggle, Azobenzene, Neurobiology,, Nanoengineering, Nanomedicine


Caballero-Briones, F., Artes, J. M., Diez-Perez, I., Gorostiza, P., Sanz, F., (2009). Direct observation of the valence band edge by in situ ECSTM-ECTS in p-type Cu2O layers prepared by copper anodization Journal of Physical Chemistry C 113, (3), 1028-1036

Polycrystalline Cu2O layers have been selectively grown by electrochemical anodization of polycrystalline Cu electrodes in an alkaline medium (pH 12.85). Uniform layers with thicknesses around 100 nm have been obtained. Using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, it was concluded that the Cu2O films behave as a p-type semiconductor. The Mott-Schottky plot gives a value for the flat band potential of U-FB = -255 mV vs silver/silver chloride electrode (SSC), an estimated carrier density N-A = 6.1 x 10(17) cm(-3), and the space charge layer width was calculated to be W-SCL = 9 nm at a band bending of 120 mV. The electronic structure of the Cu vertical bar Cu2O vertical bar electrolyte interface was for the first time probed by in situ electrochemical tunneling spectroscopy. The use of in situ electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy allows us to directly observed the valence band edge and determine its position against the absolute energy scale to be E-VB = -4.9 eV. Finally, we constructed a quantitative electronic diagram of the Cu vertical bar Cu2O vertical bar electrolyte interface, where the positions of the valence and conduction band edges are depicted, as well as the edge of the previously reported electronic subband.

JTD Keywords: 0.1 m NaOH, Electrochemical tunneling spectroscopy, Cuprous-oxide films, Anodic-oxidation, Electronic-structure, Alkaline-solution, Aqueous-solution, Initial-stages, Passive film, Thin-films


Gorostiza, P., Isacoff, E. Y., (2008). Optical switches for remote and noninvasive control of cell signaling Science 322, (5900), 395-399

Although the identity and interactions of signaling proteins have been studied in great detail, the complexity of signaling networks cannot be fully understood without elucidating the timing and location of activity of individual proteins. To do this, one needs a means for detecting and controlling specific signaling events. An attractive approach is to use light, both to report on and control signaling proteins in cells, because light can probe cells in real time with minimal damage. Although optical detection of signaling events has been successful for some time, the development of the means for optical control has accelerated only recently. Of particular interest is the development of chemically engineered proteins that are directly sensitive to light.

JTD Keywords: Ion channels, Acetylcholine receptor, Glutamate-receptor, Potassium channel, K+ channel, Light, Neurons, Channelrhodopsin-2, Manipulation, Activation


Gorostiza, P., Isacoff, E. Y., (2008). Nanoengineering ion channels for optical control Physiology , 23, (5), 238-247

Chemical modification with photoisomerizable tethered ligands endows proteins with sensitivity to light. These optically actuated proteins are revolutionizing research in biology by making it possible to manipulate biological processes noninvasively and with unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution.

JTD Keywords: -----


Díez-Pérez, Ismael, Guell, Aleix Garcia, Sanz, Fausto, Gorostiza, Pau, (2006). Conductance maps by electrochemical tunneling spectroscopy to fingerprint the electrode electronic structure Analytical Chemistry , 78, (20), 7325-7329

We describe a methodology to perform reliable tunneling spectroscopy in electrochemical media. Sequential in situ tunneling spectra are recorded while the electrochemical potential of the electrode is scanned. Spectroscopic data are presented as conductance maps or conductograms that show the in situ electronic structure of an electrode surface while it undergoes an electrochemical reaction. The conductance map or conductogram represents the redox fingerprint of an electrode/liquid interface in a specific medium and can serve to predict its electrochemical behavior in a quantitative energy scale. The methodology is validated studying the reversible oxidation and passivity of an iron electrode in borate buffer, and we describe the main quantitative information that can be extracted concerning the semiconducting properties of the Fe passive film. This methodology is useful to study heterogeneous catalysis, electrochemical sensing and bioelectronic systems.

JTD Keywords: Passive film, Oxide-film, Stainless-steel, Iron, Microscope, Surfaces, STM, Probes


Díez-Pérez, Ismael, Sanz, Fausto, Gorostiza, Pau, (2006). Electronic barriers in the iron oxide film govern its passivity and redox behavior: Effect of electrode potential and solution pH Electrochemistry Communications , 8, (10), 1595-1602

We have measured in situ the electronic conductance spectra of the passive film formed on an Fe electrode immersed in a borate buffer solution using electrochemical tunneling spectroscopy (ECTS) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) techniques, and we have followed their changes as the electrode is electrochemically oxidized and reduced. We demonstrate that pre-passive Fe(II) oxide and the passive Fe(II)/Fe(III) film, behave as p- and n-type semiconductors, respectively and that their reversible inter-conversion is mediated by the availability of free charge carriers on the electrode surface. ECTS spectra have been also modeled to obtain the main electrochemical kinetic parameters of the electron transfer through both p-Fe(II) and n-Fe(III) oxides at different sample potentials and pHs values. We find that the electronic energy barrier in the oxide and its dependence with electrode potential and solution pH, determine the reactivity and passivity of iron.

JTD Keywords: Electrochemical tunneling spectroscopy, Fe passivity Electronic energy barriers, pH effect on passivity


Díez-Pérez, Ismael, Vericat, Carolina, Gorostiza, Pau, Sanz, Fausto, (2006). The iron passive film breakdown in chloride media may be mediated by transient chloride-induced surface states located within the band gap Electrochemistry Communications , 8, (4), 627-632

Despite its tremendous scientific and economic impact, the mechanism that triggers metal passive film breakdown in the presence of aggressive ions remains under discussion. We have studied the iron passive film in chloride media using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and electrochemical tunneling spectroscopy (ECTS). Ex situ XPS reveal that the film consists exclusively of an Fe(III) oxide without chloride content. In situ ECTS has been used to build up conductance maps of the Fe electrode during its electrochemical oxidation in a borate buffer solution and its breakdown when the film is grown in the presence of chloride. This conductograms provide direct and in situ experimental evidence of chloride-induced surface states within the band gap of the oxide film (~3.3eV). These states enable new charge exchange pathways that allow hole capture at the surface of the n-type Fe(III) oxide. The blocking of VB processes that occurs in the iron passive film is no longer present in chloride media, and electrode corrosion can proceed through these new states. We propose a simple 3-step mechanism for the process, in which chloride anions form an oxidizing Fe(II) surface intermediate but do not participate directly in the reaction.

JTD Keywords: Electrochemical tunneling spectroscopy, Electronic band structure, Fe passive film, Aqueous chloride corrosion, Semiconductor decomposition, Interface states